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:female_sign::male_sign: Differences & :boy::skin-tone-6: :girl::skin…

- - - - Men have protective attitudes towards women.
    - - Female offenders are treated more leniently.
    - - Court statistics give support to chivalry thesis.
        
        Females are more likley to get a fine and released on bail.
    - - Ignores crime of the powerful
      - Women are not treated more leniently.
  - - - Courts treat females more harshly
    - - Women who don't conform are punished more harshly
        
        Carlen
        
        Women who are jailed are assessed by how they are as wives, daughters & mothers
    - - Courts punish girls for premature sexual activity
  - - - Looks at early socialisation
    - - Heidensohn
        
        Patriarchal control reduces women's opportunity to commit crime.
        
        Patriarchal control at work, finance & in public.
    - - Women are more liberated. Therefore, crime is more frequent.
        
        Women commit more 'male' offences.
    - - Female crime was already rising before liberation movement
      - Female criminals are mostly WC
  - - - Convicted crimes: theft, fraud, drugs, prostitution, violence.
      - 20 were in prison during this time.
    - - Women fail to find legitimate ways of earning decent living.
        
        Feeling powerless
    - - Women don't have opportunity to make deal or saw rewards in family life.
    - - Sees women's behaviour as determined by external forces
      - Ignores importance of free will & choice
      - Carlen's sample was small & unrepresentative
  - - - Rise in women's arrests due to justice system.
        
        'Widening the net'
    - - Professionals are influenced by moral panics created by media
      - Believe women's behaviour is getting worse
  - - - 70% are males
    - - 2% of women are victims
      - 4% of men are victims
    - - Women have greater fear
      - Women are less likely to be at risk of victimisation
  - - - Messerschmidt
        
        Masculinity is socially constructed
        
        CRITICISMS
        
        Assumes masculinity explains crime
        
        Doesn't explain why not all men use crime to achieve masculinity
      - White MC youths
        
        Subordinate themselves to teachers to achieve status
      - White WC youths
        
        Less chance of educational success
      - Black lower WC youths
        
        Few expectations of reasonable job and use gang violence to express masculinity
    - - Study of bouncers in Sunderland
        
        Working as bouncers provided paid work & opportunity for illegal ventures
    - - 'Looking the part'
      - Bouncers develop physical assets
- - - - Black people make up 3% of population
        
        But make 13% of prison population
    - - Victim surveys
        
        CRITICISMS
        
        Rely on victims memory
        
        Only covers personal crimes
        
        Excludes corporate crimes
      - Self-report studies
  - - - Philips & Bowling
        
        Oppressive policing & minority ethnic communities
    - - Ethnic minority groups are more likely to be stopped and searched
      - Terrorism Act 2000
        
        Police can stop & search anybody or any vehicle.
    - - Police racism
      - Ethnic differences in offending
      - Demographic factors
    - - Blacks 3 times as likely to get arrested than whites
      - Asians & blacks were less likely than whites to receive a caution
    - - Bowlings & Philips
        
        Evidence presented by police is weaker
      - Ethnic minorities are less likely to be prosecuted
    - - Blacks & Asians are less likely to be found guilty
      - Due to weaker cases
    - - Risk assessment to help decide an appropriate sentence for offender
    - - 5.5 per 1,000 black people were in jail
      - 1.6 per 1,000 Asian people were in jail
      - 1.4 per 1,000 white people were in jail.
  - - - Left realism
        
        Statistics are valid
      - Neo-Marxism
        
        Statistics are socially constructed
    - - Lea & Young
        
        Ethnic differences reflect real differences in levels of offending
        
        CRITICISMS
        
        Arrest rate for Asians may be lower than blacks due to different stereotypes
      - Crime is a product of relative deprivation, subculture & marginalisation
    - - Statistics don't reflect reality
      - Gilroy
        
        Black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes
        
        CRITICISMS
        
        First-generation immigrants were law-abiding
        
        Most crime is intra-ethnic
        
        Asian crime rates are similar or lower than white
      - Hall
        
        1970s saw moral panic over black 'muggers' that served interest of capitalism
        
        No evidence of this
        
        CRITICISMS
        
        Don't show how capitalist crisis led to moral panic
        
        No evidence about moral panic
  - - - Individual selected as a target due to race
    - - Police recorded 54,000 racist incidents
    - - Members of ethnic minority communities respond through crime prevention measures