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Development Across the Life Span (Infancy and Childhood Development…
Development Across the Life Span
Human development
the scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death
Cognitive
Psychosocial
Physical
Research Designs
Cross-sectional design
study several different age groups of participants one particular point in time
Cross-sequential design
First, study participants using cross-sectional design
Then, follow and assess participants for a period of no
more than six years
Longitudinal design
study one participant or group of
participants over a long period of time
Cohort effect:
impact on development when a group of people share common time period or life experience
Nature and Nurture
Nature:
influence of inherited characteristics
Nurture:
influence of the environment
Interaction between nature and nurture
Physical growth
Intellectual growth
Personality
Social interactions
The Basic Building Blocks of Development
Chromosome
tightly wound strand of DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
special molecule that
contains the genetic material of the organism
Gene:
section of DNA having a certain pattern of
chemical elements
Genetics
the science of inherited traits
Each cell in the body has 46 chromosomes
Autosomes and sex chromosomes
Paired: 23 from each parent
Conception
Egg transport (ovulation)
Begins when egg (ovum) is first released
Ends when egg (ovum) reaches the uterus
Fertilization
Fertilization:
the union of the ovum and sperm
Zygote:
cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm
Later divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby
Sperm transport
Implantation
Zygote attaches to uterine wall
Dizygotic twins:
fraternal twins
Di → two (different ova, different sperm cells)
Two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm
Two zygotes develop in the uterus at the same time
Different DNA
Monozygotic twins:
identical twins
One zygote splits into two separate masses of cells
Each mass of cells develops into a separate embryo
Identical DNA
Mono → one (same ovum, same sperm cell)
Only happens about 50% of the time
Prenatal Development
Embryonic period
Cells continue to specialize
Will become various organs and structures
But none are fully developed during embryonic period
Critical periods:
times during which certain
environmental influences can impact development
Teratogen:
any factor that can cause a birth defect
Exposure to teratogens can affect structure of organs
Lasts about six weeks
Two to eight weeks after fertilization
Begins when zygote is firmly attached to uterus
Zygote → embryo
Fetal period
Development
Organs continue to develop and become functional
Exposure to teratogens can affect function of organs
Dramatic increase in size (length and weight)
Viability:
the point at which it is possible for an infant to
survive outside the womb
Usually about 22 – 26 weeks
Lasts about 30 to 32 weeks
Begins around 8 weeks after fertilization
Embryo → fetus
Continues until birth
Most babies are born between 38 and 40 weeks
Germinal period
First two weeks after fertilization
Second week:
Zygote attaches to uterus (implantation)
First week:
Zygote moves down to the uterus
Placenta and umbilical cord begin to develop
Placenta:
specialized organ that provides nourishment
and filters away waste products
Cells begin to differentiate
Heart cells, skin cells, neurons, etc.
Stem cells:
cells that stay in a somewhat immature
state until needed to produce more cells
Infancy and Childhood Development
Newborns (neonates: 0 to ~4 weeks old)
Umbilical cord cut
Digestive system adjusts
Respiratory system begins to function
Studying infants (infants: 0 to ~1 year old)
Habituation:
tendency for infants (and adults) to stop paying attention to a stimulus that does not change
Innate reflexes:
involuntary behavior patterns
Preferential looking:
the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers that stimulus over others
Infant Reflexes
Startle (Moro) Reflex
Rooting Reflex
Grasping Reflex
Stepping Reflex
Sucking Reflex
Infant Motor Development
Raising Head and Chest
(2 – 4 months)
Rolling Over
(2 – 5 months)
Sitting up with Support
(4 – 6 months)
Sitting up without Support
(6 – 7 months)
Crawling
(7 – 8 months)
Walking
(8 – 18 months)
Infant Brain Development
Brain development
Infant brain consists of 100 billion neurons
Brain triples in weight from birth to 3 years of age
Synaptic pruning:
unused synaptic connections and nerve cells cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cell
Senses
Touch
is most well-developed sense at birth
Smell
(olfaction) and taste (gustation) also highly developed
Hearing
(audition) is functional
Vision is least developed
“Fuzzy,” black-and-white vision for first few months
Prefer patterns that resemble human faces
Taste
Cognitive Development
Major advances in cognitive development during early childhood
Cognitive development:
the development of thinking,
problem solving, and memory
Brain nearly 90% of its adult weight by age 5
Major theories of childhood development
Jean Piaget:
developed 4-stage theory of cognitive
development based on observation of infants/children
Schemes:
mental concepts formed by children as
they experience new situations and events
Assimilation:
fitting new information into existing scheme
Accommodation:
adjusting old scheme to fit new
information
Play a major role in organizing information
Four distinct stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
→ develop object permanence
Preoperational
→ develop conservation
Concrete operations
→ develop logical reasoning
Formal operations
→ develop abstract thinking
Lev Vygotsky:
emphasized role of others and interaction in cognitive development
Scaffolding:
process in which a more skilled learner
gives help to a less skilled learner
More skilled learner then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
Zone of proximal development (ZPD):
the difference between what a child can do alone and what that between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher
Stressed the importance of social and cultural
interactions with other people
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Temperament
One of the first ways in which infants demonstrate that they have different personalities
Difficult
Difficult babies tend to be irregular in their schedules and are very unhappy about change of any kind.
They are loud, active, and tend to be crabby rather than happy
“Difficult” babies are almost the opposite of easy ones.
Slow to warm up
his kind of temperament is associated with infants who are less grumpy, quieter, and more regular than difficult children but who are slow to adapt to change
If change is introduced gradually, these babies will “warm up” to new people and new situations.
Easy
“Easy” babies are regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping, and eating and are adaptable to change.
Easy babies are happy babies and when distressed are easily soothed.
Attachment
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary care- giver
Avoidant
explores without “touching base”
They did not look at the stranger or the mother, and reacted very little to her absence or her return, seeming to have no interest or concern.
Ambivalent
The word ambivalent means to have mixed feelings about something.
Ambivalent babies in Ainsworth’s study were clinging and unwilling to explore, very upset by the stranger regardless of the mother’s presence, protested mightily when the mother left, and were hard to soothe
When the mother returned, these babies would demand to be picked up, but at the same time push the mother away or kick her in a mixed reaction to her return.
Secure
Infants labeled as secure were willing to get down from their mother’s lap soon after entering the room with their mothers.
They explored happily, look- ing back at their mothers and returning to them every now and then (sort of like “touching base”).
When the stranger came in, these infants were wary but calm
When the mother left, the infants got upset. When the mother returned, the infants approached her, were easily soothed, and were glad to have her back.
Disorganized–disoriented
child seems fearful, dazed, and
depressed
Insecurely attached
Sometimes abused or neglected