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circulation & osmosis (circulation (parts of the circulatory system…

- - - - an opening at the end connects the cavity to its surroundings
      - phyla: hydras, jellies, and other cnidarians
      - benefits: minimizing diffusion distances
      - Limits: think skin
    - - the heart pumps the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses
      - phyla: arthropods, some molluscs
      - benefits: lowerhydrostartic pressure
      - Limits: smaller, less active
    - - One or more hearts pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate organs
      - phyla: annelids, cephalopods, and all vertebrates
      - benefits: delivery of O2 and nutrients
      - Limits: High BP
  - - - blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point in a single loop
      - ex: shark, rays, bony fish
      - ex: fish - 1 atrium and 1 ventricle - passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart
    - - pulmonary circuit + systemic = heart
      - ex: amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
      - ex: amphibian (frog) 2 atria and 1 ventricle - control of the relative amount of blood flowing to the lungs and the rest of the body
      - ex: mammal 2 atria and 2 ventricle
        
        left side - only oxygen-rich blood
        
        right side - only oxygen-poor blood
        
        cannot vary blood flow to lungs
  - - - contracts - systole
      - relaxes - diastole
      - Normal 120/80
    - - volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
      - heart rate - # of beats per minute
      - stroke volume - the amount of blood purple by a ventricle in a single contraction
        
        average - 70 mL
  - - - influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, viscosity, and they function in liquid transport, immunity and blood clotting
- - - - out folding of the body surface specialized for gas exchange in water
    - - air inhaled into the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and dead-end alveoli
  - - - ex: birds
      - air goes in one direction only
      - forces air down the trachea
    - - pulls air into the lungs when the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
      - ex: mammals
- - - - lives in water less concentrated than body fluids; fish tends to gain water and lose salt
      - inflow/outflow: salt in by gills (active transport)
      - urine: large volume or urine, which is less concentrated that body fluids
    - - lives in water more concentrated than body fluids; fish tend to lose water and gain salt
      - inflow/outflow: H2O out and salt out by active transport of gills
      - small volume or urine which is less concentrated than body fluids
    - - tends to lose body water to air
      - drinks water, salt in and H2O out
      - moderate volume of urine which is more concentrated than body fluids
  - - - ex: marine animals
      - to be isosmotic with its surrounding
    - - control internal osmolarity independent of external environment
      - ex:freshwater and terrestrial animals
- - - - aquatic animals
      - ammonia molecules diffuse to the surrounding water
    - - mammals and most adult amphibians convert ammonia to urea
      - combines ammonia and carbon dioxide
      - less toxic
      - disadvantage : energy cost
    - - insects, reptiles, birds
      - requires lots of ATP
  - - - secretion and reabsorption in the proximal tubule alter filtrate volume and composition
      - the descending limb of the loop of hence is permeable to water but not salt which leaves by diffusion
      - the distal tubule and collecting duct regular k+ and NaCL levels in body fluids