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(Ch.42 (blood (systalic pressure (high pressure that blood exerts on…

- - - - high pressure that blood exerts on vessels while the heart is beating
    - - The lowest pressure within the bloodstream going back to the heart
    - - protiens
        
        immunoglobulin
        
        Defense
        
        apolipoproteins
        
        Lipid transport
        
        albumin
        
        Osmotic balance, pH buffering
        
        firbinogen
        
        clotting
    - - the iron-containing protein that transports O2
    - - repair small blood vessels and prevent dangerous amounts of blood from leaking out.
  - - - contains blood
        
        blood pressure high
        
        effective delivery of O2 and nutrients
        
        does not mix with the interstitial fluid
      - pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones.
      - pumped by heart
    - - low pressure
      - contains hemolymph
        
        mixed with interstitial fluid
      - common among anthropods
      - chemical exchange
        
        hemolymph pumped into sinuses
        
        surround organs, allows exchange
      - do not contain vessels
    - - Heart > Lungs > Heart > Body > Heart.
      - mammals
    - - Heart > Gills > Body > Heart.
      - fish
  - - - When the smooth muscles relax
      - causes blood pressure in the arteries to fall
    - - he blood pressure in your brain is below the level needed to maintain blood flow
    - - increases blood pressure upstream in the arteries
    - - The first number is the systolic pressure; the second is the diastolic pressure
  - - - Transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes into the bones
      - connective tissue with spaces filled by white blood cell
      - become swollen and tender when fighting infection
    - - recovery liquid circulating in system
  - - - enabling the exchange between water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients
      - connect the arterioles and venules
    - - vessel where blood flows back into the heart
    - - carry blood from the heart to organs throughout the body
  - - - one atrium and on ventricle
    - - 4 chambers
      - oxygenated blood is pumped into the body through two chambers
      - deoxygenated blood back to the heart and to the lungs for reoxygenation
      - pumps 5L of blood
    - - oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix
      - blood pumped back into the body through a single ventricle
      - 3 chambers
  - - - Tracheae are system of highly branched chitin lined air tubes throughout the body
    - - bronchi
        
        branches that extend from the trachea into each lung
      - bronchioles
        
        finer and finer tubes from bronchi
        
        covered by cilia and a thin film of mucus
      - trachea
        
        reinforces the walls of both the larynx and the trachea keeps this part of the airway open and close
      - alveoli
        
        air sacs clustered at the tips of the tiniest bronchioles
        
        are highly susceptible to contamination
        
        oxygen is diffused into capillaries in the lungs
      - surfactant
        
        which coats the alveoli and reduces surface tension
        
        protien
      - e localized respiratory organs
    - - out folding's of the body surface
      - ventilation
        
        maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across the gill that are necessary for gas exchang
        
        animal must be moving in water
      - countercurrent exchange
        
        the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
      - Oxygen seeps through the walls of those vessels into the blood, and carbon dioxide seeps out
      - capillaries
        
        take the newly oxygenated blood back to the body
  - - - diaphram
        
        as the diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs.
      - internal intercostal muscles
      - external intercostal muscles
      - innermost intercostal muscles
    - - air is being pulled into the lungs
    - - air is forced into lungs by muscles
- - - - recovers useful molecules and water from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluid
      - including glucose, certain salts, vitamins, hormones, and amino acids
      - also occurs by active transport
    - - excretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coelom
      - A ciliated funnel surrounds the internal opening
      - fluid is drawn into a collecting tubule includes a storage bladder that opens to the outside
    - - extend from dead-end tips immersed in hemolymph to openings into the digestive tract
      - secretes certain solutes from the hemolymph into the lumen of the tubule
      - remove nitrogenous wastes and that also function in osmoregulation
    - - concentrating urine (mammalian kidney)
      - countercurrent multiplier systems
      - ureter
        
        Urine produced by each kidney exits through this duct
      - urethra
        
        tube responsible for allowing urine to leave the body
      - urinary bladder
        
        sac where urine from ureter is drained into
      - renal pelvis
        
        act as a filter for urine before it passes out of the kidney and into the bladder
      - nephrons
        
        control the absorption of water and soluble substances
    - - Nonessential solutes and wastes are left in the filtrate or are added to it by secretion
    - - made of salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes, cross the membrane
      - The filtrate is converted to a waste fluid
    - - flame capsule bulbs
        
        consisting of a tubule cell and a cap cell, has a tuft of cilia projecting into the tubule
      - network of dead-end tubules that branch throughout the body
      - beating of the cilia draws water and solutes from the interstitial fluid
      - filtrate moves outward through the tubules and empties as urine via external openings
  - - - reabsorb sodium chloride which dilutes the urine
      - has a transport epithelium that lacks water channels
      - impermeable to water
      - thin segment
        
        NaCl , diffuses out of the permeable tubule into the interstitial fluid
        
        helps maintain the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the medulla
      - thick segment
        
        epithelium actively transports NaCl into the interstitial fluid
    - - regulating the K+ and NaCl concentration of body fluids
      - contributes to pH regulation by the controlled secretion of H+ and reabsorption of HCO3-
    - - aquaporin (protein)
        
        make the transport epithelium freely permeable to water
      - further reduces filtrate volume via distinct stages of water and salt movement
      - reabsorb water and ions for the kidney.
    - - processes the filtrate into urine
    - - responsible for filtering glucose, salts, amino acids, potassium, phosphates, vitamins and minerals, and urea in the blood
      - helps maintain a relatively constant pH in body fluids
  - - - unit of measurement for solute concentration
      - the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
      - 300 milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)
      - isoosmotic
    - - to be isoosmotic with its surroundings
      - there is no tendency to gain or lose water
    - - getting rid of nitrogenous metabolites and other metabolic waste products
    - - control solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss
    - - to control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment
      - enables animals to live in environments that are uninhabitable for osmoconformers
  - - - Mammals, most amphibians, sharks, some bony fishes
      - urea is the product of an energy-consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver
      - very low toxicity
    - - Birds and many other reptiles, insects, land snails
      - relatively nontoxic does
      - does not readily dissolve in water
    - - enzymes remove nitrogen in the form of ammonia
      - interfere with oxidative phosphorylation.
      - ammonia excretion is most common in aquatic species
    - - Metabolic waste substances left over from metabolic processes
      - Endotherms eat more food and produce more nitrogenous waste than ectotherms
      - soluble wastes produced by a mammalian embryo can be carried away by the mother’s blood.
  - - - Their osmolarity is the same as that of seawater
        
        sharks
        
        TMAO protects proteins from the denaturing effect of urea.
        
        fish lose lots of water by osmosis
        
        They balance water loss by drinking a lot of seawater
        
        The excess saltsare eliminated through the gills and kidneys
        
        osmoconformers
    - - animal cells cannot tolerate salt concentrations as low as that of lake or river water
      - water balance relies on excreting large amounts dilute urine
      - hyperosmotic
      - salts lost by diffusion ,replenished by eating and by salt uptake across their gills
      - produce more of the steroid hormone cortisol, which increases the number and size of specialized salt-secreting cells
    - - waxy cuticle contributes to the success of land plants
        
        adaptations to reduce water loss
      - anhydrobiosis
        
        disaccharide called trehalose seems to protect the cells by replacing the water
        
        organism becomes almost completely dehydrated and reduces its metabolic activity
      - maintain water balance by drinking and eating moist foods