Bodily Functions and Processes

Circulation and Gas Exchange

Osmoregulation and Excretion

Circulatory Systems

Heart Variation

Blood and All It's Attributes

General term for the processes by which animals control solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss

Diffusion

Open

Closed

Single

Double

Fish

Amphibians

Mammals

Respiratory System

Blood Pressure

Lymph Circulation

Blood Components

Organs and Transport

Gas Exchange

Early Breathing Methods

Mammalian Respiration and Organs

Breathing

Negative Pressure

Positive Pressure

Osmosis

Mammalian Excretory Organs

Nephrons

Excretory Wastes

The way in which water enters and leaves cells

Osmolarity

Osmoregulatory Mechanisms

Osmoconformer

Osmoregulator

Osmoregulation in Animals

Marine

Freshwater

Land

The most significant waste products are the nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids

Urea

Uric Acid

Ammonia

Excretory Processes

Kidney

Reabsorption

Secretion

Filtration

The functional units of the vertebrate kidney

Cortical Nephrons

Juxtamedullary Nephrons

Structure

Outer Medulla

Inner Medulla

Cortex

1) Proximial Tubule

4) Distal Tubule

2) Descending limb of loop of Henle

3 cont.) Thick Segment of ascending limb

3) Thin segment of ascending limb

5) Collecting Duct

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Uterer

Urinary Bladder

Urethra

Random thermal motion

The exchange of CO2 into the environment and O2 into the cells

The heart pumps hemolymph through the organisms circulatory vessels into the spaces surrounding organs

Hemolymph

Circulatory and interstitial fluid in open circulatory systems

Within the sinuses hemolymph and cells exchange gasses and other chemicals

Blood

Heart(s) pumps blood into vessels that branch off and go into the tissues and organs

Chemical exchange occurs between blood and interstitial fluid, and interstitial fluid and cells

Circulatory fluid that is confined in vessels and separate from interstitial fluid

Blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point in a single circuit

Commonly found in Sharks, rays and bony fish

The pumps for the two organs are combined at the heart

The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the capillaries of the lungs where it may receive O2

The left side of the heart pumps oxygen rich blood to organ and tissues where it loses oxygen and returns to the heart

Found in Amphibians, reptiles and mammals

Mammals have a four chambered heart cleanly dividing oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood

Single circulatory system

Blood is pumped through the body in a single circuit, heart only holds oxygen poor blood

Double circulatory system

Three chambered heart, oxygen and oxygenated blood mix

Amphibians take advantage of this by shutting off blood flow to the lungs while they're in water

Reptiles

Double circulatory system

Turtles, lizards and snakes - blood mixes in the heart

Alligators, Caimans, etc.

Have a complete septum separating the blood, but the pulmonary and systemic circuits connect, allowing no blood in the lungs when they go under water

Double circulatory system

Dividing septum in their heart, keeping oxygenated and oxygenated blood separate

Lungs are constantly working so no cutting off or combination is required

The pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels

Diastolic Pressure

Hypertension

Systolic Pressure

The pressure when the heart contracts during ventricular systole

Normal: 120 mm of Hg

The lower BP when the ventricles are relaxed

Normal: 70 mm of Hg

High blood pressure

Occurs when BP is 140/90 or higher

Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction

Increases blood pressure upstream into the arteries

Causes blood pressure in the arteries to fall

Useful when the body gets too hot to release the heat and cool the body off

Useful in the cold to keep the core, heart and organs warm so they don't shut down

Lost fluid from capillaries and surrounding tissues is returned here

Lymph

The fluid recovered from the capillaries and tissues

An important part of the immune system, helping to defend the body

Lymph nodes

A mass of connective tissue that has spaces filled with white blood cells

When fighting off infections, white blood cells multiply rapidly, causing them to swell

Veins

Capillaries

Arteries

Plasma

Platelets

Erythrocytes

Leukocytes

The liquid matrix that blood cells are suspended in

Ions and proteins are dissolved in plasma to work with blood cells to help osmotic regulation

Cell fragments that are involved in the clotting process

Pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells

Red blood cells

The most numerous blood cells

Main function is oxygen transport

Hemoglobin

Iron containing protein that transports oxygen

White blood cells

Main function is to defend the body and fight infections

Can be found outside the circulatory system patrolling for invaders

Carry blood from the heart to organs throughout the body

Branch off into smaller, arterioles

Come from venules, converged from cappilaries

Microscopic vessels with very thin porous walls

Networks called capillary beds that infiltrate tissues

Dissolved gasses and other chemicals are exchanged by diffusion

The vessels that carry blood back to the heart

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The uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment

Partial Pressure

The pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gasses

Table 42.1: Comparing Air and Water as Respiratory Media

Gills

Tracheal System

Skin

A dense network of capillaries below the skin helps the exchange of gasses between the circulatory system and the environment

Found in earthworms and some amphibians and other animals

Outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in water

Ventilation maintains the partial pressure needed for gas exchange

A network of air tubes that branch throughout the body

Commonly found in insects

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Trachea

Alveoli

Larynx

Lungs

Covers the glottis, preventing food from entering your trachea

Windpipe, the long tube that leads down to your lungs

Localized respiratory organs where gas exchange takes place

Stem from the trachea that lead into each lung

Finer and finer tubes branching off the bronchi

Air sacs clustered at the tips of the tiniest bronchioles

Inflation of the lungs with forced air flow

Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, which rises and forces air down into the trachea

Pulling air into the lungs

Mammals lower air pressure in their lungs below that of the air outside their body

Diaphragm

A sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the cavity and helps control the inflation and deflation of the lungs

The number of moles of solute per liter of solution

Ex: The osmolarity of human blood is 300 milliosmoles per liter

To be isoosmotic with ones surroundings

All are marine animals

No tendency to gain or lose water

To control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment

Allows animals to live in freshwater and on land

Most are osmoconformers

Osmolarity is the same as seawater

Cannot survive in freshwater

Osmoregulators

Bodily fluids must be hyperosmotic because they cannot handle low salt concentrations

Adaptations to reduce water loss are vital for organisms to survive on land

Osmoregulators

Most common in aquatic species

Need access to lots of water

Can only be tolerated at low concentrations

The product of an energy consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver

Very low toxicity

Very high energy cost to produce urea from ammonia

Relatively nontoxic

Does not readily dissolve in water

Can be excreted with very little water loss

The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood

Water and solutes are forced across a seletive permeable membrane

Recovers useful molecules and water from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluid

Toxins and excess ions are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory tube

Excretion

Altered filtrate leaves the system and body as urine

Functions in both osmoregulation and excretion

Urine is produced here and sent down

Ducts in which urine is sent down to reach the bladder

A common sac where urine is drained into from the kidneys and both uterers

The tube through which urine is expelled from the bladder and out of the body

Make up 85% of the nephrons in the kidneys

Reach only a short distance into the medulla

Extend deep into the medulla

Essential for the production of urine and water conservation in mammals

Reabsorption of ions, water, and valuable nutrients is critical here

Plays a key role in regulating potassium and sodium concentration of bodily fluids

Make the transport epithelium freely permeable to water to further reduce filtrate volume

Movement of sodium out of the filtrate continues, leaving the filtrate more dilute as it continues

Sodium diffuses out of the permeable tubule and into the interstitial fluid

Process filtrate into urine which then leads it out into the utrerers