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Modules 31-33 (Module 31 (31.7 Effortful Processing Strategies (There are…

- - - - memory- the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and the retrieval of information
      - How is memory measured?
        
        Psychologists believe that learning is able to persist (memory) because of three retention measures:
        
        recognition- a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
        
        relearning- a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material again
        
        recall- a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test
        
        Our response speed when we are recalling or recognizing information is indicative of our memory strength and speed at relearning
        
        It is also good to note that tests of recognition and of time spent relearning information shows that we remember more than what we can actually recall
  - - - An information processing model can therefore relate our memory to a computer operations, and therefore to remember an event, three things must occur:
        
        storage- the process of retaining encoded information over time
        
        retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storage
        
        encoding- the process of getting information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning
        
        Back to the computer analogy, computers often process information sequentially, just like our brain which utilizes
        
        parallel processing- processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously, the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
        
        Connectionism also relates to multitrack processing because it views memories as products of interconnect neural networks
        
        Particular activation patterns within these networks allow for specific memories, and everytime we learn something new these pathways change
        
        In order to explain the memory formation process, Richard Atkinson and Richard Schiffrin came up with a three stage model:
        
        Then we process information into short term memory- activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten , where we encode it through rehearsal
        
        Finally, information moves into long term memory- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
        
        We first record information as sensory memory- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
        
        Alan Baddley and others expanded upon this by noting
        
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  - - - explicit memory- retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" also known as declarative memory
        
        We encode explicit memories through conscious
        
        effortful processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
        
        When information skips the conscious encoding track and goes directly into storage it is called
        
        automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information such as word meaning
        
        Automatic processing then creates
        
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  - - - Three things that are automatically processed include:
        
        time- we unintentionally record the sequence of a day's events
        
        frequency- we are able to effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen
        
        space- often encode certain location of items, then visualize its location when there is desire to retrieve the information
  - - - For short visual memories, they are called
        
        iconic memory- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
      - For short auditory memories they are called
        
        echoic memory- a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
  - - - This has been proven by researchers, and we tend to remember
        
        about 6 letters and only about 5 words
        
        Working memory capacity is depedent upon things like age and intelligence, but something that we all share is how
        
        We do better and more efficient work when we have no distractions and we are working on one task at a time
  - - - One strategy that occurs naturally and enables us to recall things like letters more easily is called
        
        chunking- organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
    - - mnemonics- memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
    - - hierarchies, which helps us retrieve information effectively
    - - This means that massed practice (cramming) is less effective compared to distributed practice
        
        Distributed practice takes advantage of the
        
        spacing effect- the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
        
        When it comes to distributed practice, one way to be effective at it is to have repeated self testing which is called the
        
        testing effect- enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test enhanced learning
  - - - When it comes to processing, it is categorized into 2 types
        
        shallow processing- encoding on a basic level, based on structure or appearance of words
        
        deep processing- encoding semantically, based upon the meaning of words, tends to yield the best retention