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circulation & gas exchange, osmoregulation & excretion (patterns…

- - - - heart contraction pumps the hemolymph through the vessels into interconnected sinuses that surrounds the organs
        
        in the sinuses there is chemical exchange that happens between the hemolymph and the bodies cells
        
        so when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph goes back into the pores that have valves that close when the heart contracts
      - having a open system requires less energy cost then having a closed system
      - ex of open systems are arthropods, some molluscs, & clams
    - - one or more heart pumps deliver blood into large vessels branching into the small one, infiltrating the organs
        
        the chemical exchange happens between the blood & interstitial fluid.
      - ex of closed circulatory system are annelids, cephalopods, & vertebrates
      - advantages, is high blood pressure delivering more O2 & nutrients to the cells of more larger animals
  - - - three main types of blood vessels
        
        arteries carry the blood from the heart to the organs, within the arteries branch into arterioles these send blood to capillaries
        
        the capillaries are thin porous walls, that have capillary beds, infiltrate tissues
        
        capillaries lead to venules, the venules lead to the veins that carry blood back to the heart
      - the heat in vertebrates have chambers, the atria receive blood from the heart, the ventricles pump blood out of the heart
    - - single circulation is in most bony fishes, rays, sharks. one atrium and one ventricle. the blood is pumped throughout the body in one circulation
        
        in single circulation the blood leaves the heart and passes through the capillary beds before it returns to the heart
      - double circulation, has two circuits it is mostly found in amphibians, reptiles, & mammals
        
        the pumps in the two circuits are combined forming the heart, having two pumps allows for coordination of pumping cycles
        
        right side pumps blood delivering oxygen poor blood to capillary bed of the gas exchange tissues, where O2 is moved in & CO2 out of the blood
        
        this is called the pulmonary circuit b/c it has capillary beds in the lungs as do reptiles & amphibians
        
        if there are capillaries in both lungs and the skin it is called a pulmocutaneous circuit
        
        when the oxygen rich blood leaves the exchange tissue it pumps through the left side
        
        as the heart contracts blood moves through the capillary bed in organs and the tissue throughout the body
        
        the exchange of O2 & CO2, and also nutrients and waste, the oxygen poor blood goes back into the heart finishing the systemic circuit
        
        frog, have a three chamber heart, two atria & one ventricle
        
        the oxygen rich blood leaves the left atrium into the systemic circuit, oxygen poor blood leaves the right atrium into the pulmocutaneous circuit
        
        in mammals they have two atria and two divided ventricles
        
        the left side receives the and only pumps oxygen rich blood, the right side receives and pumps only oxygen poor blood
        
        mammals can't vary blood flow to the body w/ varying to the body
        
        three-chambered heart of turtles, snakes, lizards. an incomplete septum divides ventricles into left and right chambers
        
        the aortas lead to the systemic circulation
- - - - force directed lengthwise in arteries causes the blood flow to go away from the heart, this has the highest pressure, Force exerted sideways stretches the artery wall
        
        recoil of elastic walls maintains blood pressure & blood flow
    - - arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts during the ventricular systole, the pressure here is called systolic
        
        b/c of ventricular contraction there a spike in blood pressure stretches the arteries.
        
        pulse is the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat
      - during diastole the arterial wall snaps back, b/c of this there is lower pressure when the ventricle are relaxed. diastolic pressure
    - - when the smooth muscle in the arteriole wall contracts causing it to become narrow a process called vasoconstriction
        
        ex: working out dilates the arterioles dilate, and there would greater oxygen rich blood to the muscles
      - when smooth muscle relax the arterioles increase in diameter this is called vasodilation. cases blood pressure to fall in the arteries
  - - - when the rings open and close they regulate & redirect the passage of blood into capillaries
  - - - the lost fluid that is lost by the capillaries is called lymph
    - - when fighting infection. white blood cells multiple that causes the lymph nodes to become swollen and tender
- - - - to assist ventilation animals move their gills through water or let water move over the gills
      - ex: fishes use swimming and coordination movement of the mouth and the gills cover to ventilate the gills
        
        the gas exchange is maximized by countercurrent exchange the exchange of heat between two fluids that flow in opposite direction
- - - - plasma, inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions "blood electrolytes", that are buffer for the blood & maintain osmotic balance
      - plasma have substances in transit from one part of the body to another, so nutrients, metabolic waste, respiratory gases, & hormones
  - - - erythrocytes (red blood cells), transport O2. they are small disks. the shape increases surface area enhancing O2 diffusion
      - erythrocytes live only about 120 days
      - EPO (erythropoietin) a hormone that is secreted by the kidneys, generates more erythrocyte production
    - - phagocytic cells that engulf & digest organisms
      - lymphocytes develop into B & T cells respond to foreign substances
      - leukocytes found on the outside of the circulatory system, patrolling interstitial fluid & lymphatic system
    - - are pinched off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells
      - function in structural & molecular blood clotting
    - - when their is a break in the blood vessel wall that exposes the proteins that attracts platelets & initiate coagulation
      - coagulation is when the liquid components of the blood turn solid. the coagulant or sealant circulates in an inactive form called fibrinogen
      - platelets release clotting factors triggering formation of thrombin that respond to the broken blood vessel
        
        thrombin is an enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin
        
        fibrinogen aggregates into the threads that from the framework of the clot.
        
        thrombin activates more thrombin that drives clotting to completion through positive feedback
        
        there is also a thrombus which is a cot that forms in the blood vessels blocking blood flow.
- - - - the trachea a passageway for food down to the esophagus to the stomach.
      - from the larynx air passes into the trachea, and are kept open by cartilage that reinforces the wall
- - - - with the nostrils and mouth closed the oral cavity rises forcing air down the trachea
      - exhalation, air is forced back out by the elastic recoil of the lungs & by compression of the muscular body wall
  - - - inhalation causes the thoracic cavity to expand this involves the rib muscles & diaphragm
    - - vital capacity, tidal volume of maximum inhalation & exhalation
      - residual volume, remaining air after a forced exhalation
- - - - isoosmotic, two solutions have the same permeability, & there would be no net movement of water
      - hyperosmotic, two solutions differ in osmolairty and the solution with the highest concentration
      - hypoosmotic, is the dilute solution
      - water flows by osmosis from a hypoosmotic to a hyperosmotic
  - - - marine animals are osmoconformer b/c they don't have a tendency to loss or gain water =
        
        marine animals have the same osmolarity as seawater
        
        most marine animals are osmoregulators
        
        ex: Cod balance water loss by drinking alot of seawater eliminating salt through gills and kidneys
    - - these animals have internal fluids that have a high osmolarity than their surroundings
        
        so they have trouble gaining water & losing salt by diffusion
        
        ex: Perch drink no water & excreting diluted urine
- - - - each bulb has a tubule cell & a cap cell. the bulbs has cilia projecting into the tubule
        
        1) during filtration the beating cilia draws water & solutes from the interstitial fluid through the bulb releasing the filtrate into the tubule network
        
        2) the processed filtrate moves outward through the tubules & empties through urine
  - - - ciliated funnels surround the internal opening of metanphridium
      - the cilia beat & fluid come into a collecting tubule that has a storage bladder opening to the outside
      - the metanphridia function in excretory & osmotic functions
  - - - 1) the transport epithelium line the tubules secreting solutes, including nitrogenous waste from the hemolymph into the lumen of the tubule
      - 2) the water follows the solutes into tubules by osmosis, and the fluid passes into the rectum
        
        solutes are pumped back into the hemolymph, & water re-absorption by osmosis follows
  - - - weaving back & forth across the renal cortex and medulla are nephrons, the functional part of the kidney
      - cortical nephrons make up 85% of the nephron & reach into the medulla
      - the juxtamedullary nephrons, deep into the medulla. they are essential for production of urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids
    - - each nephron has a glomerulus, a ball of capillaries
        
        end of the tubule has a bowman capsule that's cup-shaped & surrounds the glomerulus
        
        filtrate is formed when blood pressure forces the fluid in the glomerulus into the lumen of the bowmans capsule
      - processing happens when the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule, loop oh Henle (descending & ascending limb), & distal tubule
      - collecting duct receives the processed filtrate and transport to the renal pelvis
      - nephrons get supplied blood from afferent arteriole an offshoot of the renal artery branching & forms the capillaries of the glomerulus
        
        capillaries converge when leaving the glomerulus that form efferent arteriole
        
        branches of this vessel forming the peritubular capillaries these surround the proximal & distal tubule
        
        some branches extend outward & form the vasa recta the haripin shaped capillaires that serve the renal medulla & the loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons