cognition ( thinking)
mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information
includes understanding, organizing and communicating information to others
dual processing theory
mental images
mental representations that stands for objects and events
have a picture like quality
interaction with mental images similar to interactions with physical objects like scanning a map or rotating an object
concepts and prototypes
concepts= ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events or activities
formal concepts
natural concepts
concepts that are defined by specific rules or features
concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world
prototypes= a concepts that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concepts
prototypes develops according to exposure a person has to objects a category
problem solving and decision-making strategies
decision making
the process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives.
trail and error( mechanical solution)
problem- solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
algorithms
very specific, step by step procedures for solving certain types of problems
heuristic
an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a "rule of thumb"
representativeness heuristic
assumption that any object( or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.
availability heuristic
estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related example.
problem solving( process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways)
problems with problem solving and decision making
functional fixedness
a block of problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical function
mental sets
the tendency for people to persist in using problem- solving patterns that have worked for them in the past
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that doesn't fit those beliefs
creativity (the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways)
convergent thinking
kind of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.
consist of new ways of combining ideas or behavior
typically is as a result of divergent thinking ( type of thinking which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.)
solution to the problems are not always apparent
problems can be caused by 3 common barriers
functional fixedness
mental sets
confirmation bias
less prone to common barriers of problem solving
can be stimulated by divergent thinking like
keeping a journal
freewriting
brainstorming
mind or subject mapping
generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time without judging each idea's merits until all ideas are recorded
carry a journal to write down ideas as they occur or a recorder to capture those same ideas or thoughts
write down or record everything that comes to mind about a topic without revising or proofreading until all of the information is written or recorded in some way. organize it later.
start with a central idea and draw a "map" with lines from the center to other related ideas, forming a visual representation of concepts and their connections.
intelligence ( the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use recourses effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems)
so hard to define
not a material, concrete thing
it's a concept humans made up
no universally agreed upon definition
any definition will be imperfect
one necessarily limited definition
the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use recourses effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
it's difficult to measure
how do you measure something you can't define?
issues with testing and interpretation of results
theories
gardener's multiple intelligences
Stenberg's triarchic theory
spearman's g factor ( Charles spearman)
intelligence comprises 2 different abilities
overall intelligence comprises nine different types of intelligence
g factor
s factor
general intelligence
specific intelligence
ability to reason and solve problems
ability to excel in some certain areas
believed reason, logic, and knowledge were all different aspects of intelligence
and there were still more aspects and abilities still
started with seven then added 2 more
verbal/linguistic
musical
visual/ spatial
logical/ mathematical
intrapersonal
movement
naturalist
interpersonal
existentialist
ability to use language
ability to compose and perform music
ability to think logically to solve mathematical problems
ability to understand how objects are oriented in the space
ability to control one's body motions
understanding of one's emotions and how they guide actions
sensitivity to others and understanding motivation of others
ability to recognize the patterns found in nature
ability to see big picture of human world by asking questions about life, death, and the ultimate reality of human existance
intelligence comprises three different aspects
creative
practical
analytical
the ability to break problems down into component parts or analysis for problem solving
the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems
the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; " street smarts"
CHC theory ( initially proposed 2 types of intelligences)
crystalized intelligence
fluid intelligence
represents acquired knowledge and skills
problem solving and adaptability in unfamiliar situation
later added more abilities to organized them into hierarchical model
measure of intelligence( first formal test created by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon to help identify French students who needed more help with learning)
tests
Stanford - Binet
Wechsler tests
Binet's mental ability test
key element to be tested was child's mental age
Terman ( researcher at Stanford) translated and revised Binet's test
uses a Variety of verbal and nonverbal subtests to provide an overall estimate of intelligence and scores related to five areas of cognition
first test to adopt intelligence quotient ( IQ)
IQ= mental age/ chronological age X 100
now uses age- group comparison norms as the Wechsler does
allow testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different ages of groups
uses a variety of verbal and performance subtests to provide an overall score of intelligence and index scores related to specific cognitive domains.
test construction for evaluating the IQ tests
3 versions for different age groups
WAIS (adult)
WPPSI ( preschool and primary )
WISC ( children)
standardized administration, scoring, and comparison against norms
intelligence is assumed to follow a normal curve
good tests are both valid and reliable
is challenging
different definitions of intelligence and multiple ways to assess them
difficult to design tests that are completely free of cultural bias
reliability
validity
the tendency of the test to produce the same scores again and again each time, it is given to the same people
the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure
standardization
the process of giving a test to a large group of people that represents kind of people for whom the test designed
norm
scores from the standardization group
cultural bias
people are not creating IQ tests in a vacuum
their cultures and backgrounds can influence them in ways they are not even aware of
test-writers have their own cultures and back grounds
example: which one of the flooring 5 words Is least like the other four?
DOG - CAR- FISH - BIRD - CAT
American Test- writer : CAR ( not an animal)
Japanese child : Fish ( found in sea)
it is virtually impossible to create an IQ test that is completely free of cultural bias( or socioeconomic bias)
usefulness of IQ tests
IQ tests generally correlate with academic success and job performance
correlates with SAT, ACT, and GRE scores
remember : correlation is the opposite of causation
they correlates because they measure similar things
neuropsychology
head injuries, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders , etc.
IQ tests used as one tool( among others)to assess extent of deficit and or progress
individual differences ( IQ can be used to identify individuals who differ significantly from those of average intelligence)
intellectual disability/ intellectual developmental disorder
other factors
giftedness
criteria
characteristics
IQ > 130 ( 2SD above mean)
IQ > 140 are called geniuses
typically grow up to be well- adjusted adults except when pushed to achieve at younger and younger ages
extreme genesis may experience social and behavioral adjustment issues as children
classifications
casual factors
criteria
biological
environmental
toxins such as lead o mercury
poverty
fragile X syndrome
fetal alcohol syndrome
down syndrome
emotional intelligence
nature and nurture
awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions, self- motivation, empathy and social skills
may be related to traditional intelligence but data is still being collected
identical twins reared together show correlation of 0.86 between their IQs
heritability estimates apply within groups of people, not between groups not to individuals and only in a general sense
correlation is not 1.00 so environment also play a part
currently heritability estimate is about 0.50
heritability = degree to which observed variation in some trait within a population can be considered due to genetic influences
only applies to variation within a group of people
doesn't apply to individual people
Flynn effect
IQ scores steadily increasing over time in modernized countries
nature and nurture issues
Flynn effect
Bell curve ( Hurrstein and Murray)
heritability
claimed that intelligence is largely inherited
made a number of statistical and interpretation errors
implied casual relationship about race, intelligence, and socioeconomic status
assumed that IQ is the same thing as intelligence
ignored cultural and environmental factors
fundamentally misunderstood heritability
stereotype threat
condition in which being made aware of a negative stereotype interferes with the performance of a person in that group
language
levels of language analysis ( language structures worldwide share common characteristics)
syntax
morphemes
phonemes
semantics
grammer
pragmatics
stages of language development
language allow children to think in words, ask questions, communicate needs and wants and form concepts
universal progressive stages
cooing, babbling, one- word speech, telegraphic speech, whole sentences
the relationship between language and thought
linguistic relativity hypothesis
animal studies in language
does language influence thought or does thinking influence language?
piaget believed that concepts preceded and aided, language development
vgotsky believed that language helps develops concepts and help the child learn to control behavior
relationship has been debated
words people use determine the way they think about the world; originally proposed by Sapir and Whorf; may apply more to higher level concepts
suggests that some concepts are universal and influence and development of language
all animals can communicate, their use of language is still under the investigation
some success ( chimpanzees, parrots and dolphins) may approach level of 3- year old human, no conclusive evidence of syntax mastery
systems of rules governing structure and use of the language
according to Chomsky, human have an innate ability, LAD( language acquisition device) to understand and produce language
basic units of sound in language
rules for combining words and phrases
smallest units of meaning within a language
rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences
social or practical aspects of communicating with others
taking turns
use of gestures
different ways of speaking to different people