Stress as a Psychological Process

Sources of Stress

Coping with Stress

Models of Stress

Hans Seyle's General Adaptaion Syndrome (GAS)

What is Stress

Stress is frequently described as feeling pressure or anxiety; The stimulus that causes our stress is usually referred to as a stressor, which is a 'situation, circumstance or any stimulus that is perceived to be a threat or which causes and promotes stress'

It can be positive or negative, environmental, psychological or social/cultural in nature.

Stress involves a psychological process: Psychological - initial mental processes involved in perception and interpretation of the stressor. Biological - Activation of the autonomic NS

Not all stress is bad stress. A little stress can be good (e.g. helps us perform well on a test or in a triathlon). However, particularly intense and/or prolonged stress can lead to negative effects on our immune, cardiovascular, endocrine and CN systems

Eustress and Distress

Eustress: A positive psychological response to stress

Distress: A negative psychological response to stress

Life Events

Acculturative Stress

Daily Pressures

Catastrophes

Stress and Individual Interpretation

How we interpret the stressor in the first place can be influenced by our personality and/or past experiences. (e.g. Accepting an award on stage may be a great compliment and motivator for some, while for others it could lead to embarrassment or humiliation)

Both eustress and distress may be experienced (e.g. lining up for concert tickets or missing the bus for school)

The next level of stressor generally involves significant life events, which can be positive or negative (e.g.death of a loved one or beginning a new job)

The process of learning a new language and adapting to customs and laws very different from a migrant's own country. It can arise as a person adapts to these changes

Stress can be intensified when the individual doesn't feel as though they have any control. This is a particular characteristic of natural disasters or other such catastrophes

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could develop

Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress

As a Biological Process

Fight-flight-freeze Response

Generally controlled by the sympathetic branch of the ANS. The "freeze" part may also be a function of the parasympathetic branch. The freeze can increase survival by making it less likely an animal is detected, or cause an animal to be released.

The Role of Cortisol

The FFF response activates for SNS which causes a quick and immediate release of adrenaline and noradrenaline. The effects of these stress hormones is not long-lasting and activates various organs to increase survival chances. Longer acting hormones like cortisol are also released into the bloodstream. Once danger has passed, the PNS restores the body to "normal" functioning

Also known as 'the stress hormone', cortisol plays an essential role in our response to stress. It maintains non-vital functions like immunity, digestion etc.

Released into the bloodstream to maintain blood-glucose levels during fight or flight. During prolonged stress, it also has the effect of suppressing the immune system, making us vulnerable to both minor and major illnesses, depending on how long the cortisol remains in our bloodstream.

When the cause of stress is removed, acetycholine is released and the levels of cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenaline lower as the body returns to normal

Stage 1: Alarm - When a person realises that there is a threat or stressor. Shock - the body responds as though it is injured. Body temperature and blood pressure momentarily drop as the person becomes aware of the situation. This effect only lasts for a small amount of time. Countershock - The body increases its resistance to the strssor with the release of nor/adrenalin and cortisol into the bloodstream. This increases heart and respiration rates, and releases more glucose into the bloodstream by diverting it from the gastrointestinal tract to muscles and other parts of the body in preparation for an emergency response. FFF response is activated

Stage 2: Resistance- During this 'adaptive' stage, the PNS reduces heart and respiration rates, blood-glucose levels and some stress-related hormones such as adrenalin and cortisol continue to circulate the body, keeps the body prepared for action and increase the person's stress tolerance. If the stress continues, the person remains in an elevated state of arousal with greater energy resources at their disposal to deal with the situation and adapt physiologically to the higher levels of stress. During this stage, more susceptable to colds, flu or other bacterial infections due to the continued circulation of nor/adrenaline and cortisol - cortisol can suppress the immune system.

Consists of alarm (shock/countershock), resistance and exhaustion

Stage 3: Exhaustion - If the resistance stage lasts for an extended period of time, there will be prolonged and elevated levels of physiological arousal due to stress hormones in the blood. The body's ability to meet the demands of the stressor begins to decline as the person enters the stage of exhaustion. As the person's biological resources become severely depleted, they become susceptible to more serious life-threatening illnesses, and in extreme circumstances, death. In this stage, they are often psychologically exhausted and may show signs of depression

Stress is regarded as 'transactional' between the person and the environment where the person's individual interpretation or cognitive appraisal determines how they will deal with the situation. This appraisal is influenced by the person's beliefs, goals, personal circumstances, life experiences and personality. There are two main stages of cognitive assessment of a situation: Primary and Secondary

Primary Appraisal: This stage tends to be quick, involving little reflection as people are usually able to interpret situations quickly due to past experiences.
Harm/loss - An assessment that some type of damage has been done such as an illness or poor test result; for example, 'I just failed my major test'
Threat - An assessment that there may be a future harm or loss; for example, 'I might fail the next major test'
Challenge - An assessment that there is opportunity for personal growth or that something might have a positive outcome
Neutral/irrelevant/benign - An assessment that this event is of little or no personal importance or relevance and therefore does not go beyond primary appraisal

Secondary Appraisal: Made at a more conscious level as the person assesses what resources and energy they have to deal with the event and what strategies they can use to effectively cope with it. Secondary appraisals ask "Can I cope?"

Approach Strategies

Avoidance Strategies

Coping Flexibility

Context-specific Effectiveness

What is Coping?

We have an innate stress response but how we deal with stress is largely learned behaviour. It is complex process that varies based on the stressor, our appraisal of the situation, and our own resources. A coping strategy is our response to a stressor in order to manage it and reduce the effect it has on us. There isn't one strategy that allows us to cope with every situation. Research suggests that flexibility in your strategies is the key to success

Considers the unique characteristics of a situation or environment that the person is required to adapt to. Past experience and previously used strategies will determine how effectively an individual can implement coping strategies. When the same type of situation or stressor occurs again, the person has a repertoire of coping strategies that they can use, which may be problem focused, emotion focused or a combination

Refers to the individual's ability to adapt effectively to a range of stressful situations. People who develop a repertoire of both problem and emotion focused coping strategies and are able to implement these to manage various stress-inducing events. Coping is considered a dynamic process because the person's appraisal and coping responses reflect an understanding that the environment is ever-changing and the individual needs to remain flexible in managing these changes. Reappraisal of the stressful event is also part of coping flexibility

These strategies actively target the stressor in practical ways. They are designed to minimise the stressor to make it tolerable. They are the most effective way of coping with stress

Problem-focused Coping

Problem-focused coping is considered to be a constructive type of coping where reduced stress is achieved by using behaviour modification to deal with the situation. Problem-focused strategies include: Taking control; information seeking - looking for more information to know how to deal with a stressor; evaluating the pros and cons

These strategies are designed to avoid or escape painful elements of the stressor - like thoughts, feelings and memories

Emotion-focused Coping

Viewed as an adaptive form of coping, emotion-focused coping strategies can be either adaptive(approach) or maladaptive (avoidant). Emotion-focused coping involves trying to reduce negative feelings associated with the stressor such as embarrassment, fear, anxiety, depression, excitement or frustration. Adaptive or 'approach' strategies where the individual uses proactive strategies to help reduce their emotional distress. Maladaptive or 'avoidant' strategies include strategies such as denial or distraction tend to delay or prevent the person from dealing or adjusting to a stressful situation. Reappraisal is also important