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Thinking and problem solving (3 aspects of problem solving: purposeful,…
Thinking and problem solving
3 aspects of problem solving: purposeful, deliberate or controlled processes and needs a solution, lack the appropriate knowledge
ill defined problem=not clear if there's a solution, not studied enough
well defined problem= Clear and specified problem statement, often studied
knowledge rich= requires relevant specific knowledge - difficult study- not often studied (usually involves expertise)
knowledge lean= solvable without too much prior knowledge, easy to study- often studied
Newell and Simon 1972- human problem solving problems are solved with limiting processing resources with limited short term memory capacity, complex problems are serially -one bit at a time and people can retrieve relevant information from LTM
Maze= problem space
algorithms= step by step series of operations (actions) that cover the entire problem space e.g. formula for calculating speed. S=D/T
guarantee a solution, efficient for well defined problem space
weakness- need to know whole problem space, can be high inefficient
heuristics- cognitively undemanding and fast and frugal, can lead to errors and bias
Simon and Newell 1972- means ends analysis - note difference between current state and gaol state- simple and effective heuristic but not very elegant
Hill climbing- Robertson 2001: - little idea of problem space can be problematic
McGregor at el 2001- assess rate of progress towards the goal using problem solving
Availability - Tversky and Kahnman 1974= if recalled must be important, use to estimate the frequency and difficulty of problem
bigger or more rare events thought to mean more likely to occur
Some side problem: mental set, illusion of knowing, analogy (making use of similar solutions) - Genter 1989
importance of similarity- Keane 1987- more likely to use analogy.
Chen 2002: three types of similarity- superficial similarity - solution irrelevant details- less likely to depend on superficial similarities - Dunbar and Blanchette 2001
structural similarity- shared casual relations between some of the main component of the problems- crucial to any analogy- gender and markman 1997
procedural similarity- procedures or actions that turn solution principle in to concrete actions operations to solve multiple problems
Day and Goldstone 2011- similarity between individuals mental representation - people are better at accessing and transferring structurally and procedural similar solutions they have learned
insight problems= productive not reproductive
Metcalfe and weir 1987- warmth near solution, pops into mind
less disruption to solution time by ongoing tasks - lactic et al 1987, individual differences in WM capacity do not predict performance- fleck 2008
dead end solutions, only require a reconstructing of the problem space
sleeping on the problem - Wagner et al, 2004- 59% participants found the simpler solution, 25% did not
no sleep- 22% found solution
penaloza and valvillo 2012- loss of misleading info is beneficial
incubation- putting the problem aside- improved- walls 1926
sio and ormerod 2009- meta- analysis of incubation and problem solving, occurs in 73% of studies, stronger effects for creative problems with multiple solutions, longer perpetration time, low cognitive demand task resulted in a stronger incubation effects
ohlesson 1992- insight learning - we need to change the problem representation due to block impasse
constraint relaxation- remove possible limitations, re encoding- reinterpret some aspect of the problem, elaboration- new info is added
fleck and weissberg 2013 - developing or adding new information- elaborating the problem
expertise- high level thinking and performance in a domain - solving problems, the problem is no longer a problem
ches s experts- goblet et al 2004- useful expertise to study
gobet and chass 2009- templates- enable us to recognise input as meaningful and familiar so that they can be matched to stored forms. patterns which we can select
Ericsson et al 1993- 10,000 hrs of practise for expertise, Ericsson and ward 2007- theory of practise- 4 key aspects 1) appropriate task difficulty level , 2) learner gets informative feedback about performance, learner has adequate chances to repeat the task and learner has chance to correct their errors
LTWM- Ericsson and ward 2007- problem solving involves working memory
gobet and clarkson 2004- expertises can chunk info into larger templates,
routine expertise- use acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems, adaptive expertise- using previous knowledge to develop strategies for unfamiliar tasks
campitelli and gobet 2011: practise, individual variability, skill
grand masters lean quickly and keep on practising natural talent?
natural talent: gottfredson 1997- intelligence and occupational success, mackintosh 1998- mean intelligence level, Grabner et al 2007- chess masters verbal, Cecil and liker 1986- not necessarily true for specialist skills
mosing et al 2014- innate skill may lead to more practise