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Plant form (ch. 29, Understanding Biology, Mason, 1st edition) (Root…

- - - - Prop root - keeps plant upright.
      - Aerial root - obtains water from the air.
      - Pneumatophores - facilitates oxygen update.
      - Contractile root - pulls plant into soil.
      - Parasitic root - penetrates host plants.
      - Food storage root - stores carbohydrates.
      - Water storage root - weighs 50 kilograms or more.
      - Buttress root - greatly provides stability.
  - - - Columella cells - inner root cap cells.
      - Root Cap cells - outer and lateral rooto cap cells.
    - - Epidermal cells - formed from root surface cells, and have very thing cuticles with either hair or not.
      - Parenchyma cells - produced by cortex (meristem ground cells).
        
        Endodermis - inner boundary of parenchyma that includes Caspian strips made of suberin and sometimes lignin.
        
        Stele - interior tissue to endodermis that includes pericycle (cylinder on the outer most stele layer).
- - - - Internal stem structure - monocot vascular bundles that are usually scattered throughout ground tissue systems, and eudicot vascular tissue that is in a ring with the internal ground tissue (pith) and the external ground tissue (cortex).
        
        Secondary growth - stem's ability to continue growth. Vascular structure is directly related to continued growth; Eudicots have a vascular cambium between the primary xylem and phloem that connects the rings of the primary vascular bundles; Monocots have no vascular cambium or continued growth.
        
        Annual growth - annual vascular patters of cambium growth. Revealed by tree rings; cell size shows growth conditions; in woody eudicots and gymnosperms, the cork cambium arises in the outer cortex and produces box-like cork cells on the outside layer and parenchyma-like phelloderm cells on the inside layer; and collectively the cork and phelloderm layers are termed periderm.
        
        Lenticel - specialized structure of the cork cambium that produces unsuberized (non-cork or non-converted phellem) cells that permit gas exchange to continue.
      - Modified stems
        
        Tubers - swollen tips of rhizomes containing carbohydrates.
        
        Cladophylls - flattened stems resembling leaves.
        
        Tendrils - supportive by twining and climbing.
        
        Runners and stalons - horizontal stems with long internodes that grow along the ground's surface.
        
        Rhizomes - horizontal underground stems with adventitious roots.
        
        Corms - superficially resemble bulbs (no fleshy leaves).
        
        Bulbs - swollen underground stem that consists of fleshy leaves.
  - - - Opposite (ex. periwinkle).
      - Whorled (ex. sweet woodruff).
      - Alternate (ex. ivy).
    - - Megaphylls - several to many veins. Most plants.
      - Microphylls - one vein branching from the vascular cylinder of the stem and not extending the full length of the stem. Phylum Lycophyta.
      - Eudicot leaf structure - most have flat blades and slender petioles (stalks between leaves). Flat surfaces increase light absorption; and flattening reflects an evolutionary shift from radial to dorsal-ventral symmetry.
      - Stipules - outgrowths of the petiole base that may be leaf forming or form modified spines.
      - Veins - vascular bundles in leaves. Main veins are parallel in most monocot leaves; and veins of eudicots form an intricate network.
      - Complex leaves - blades that are divided into leaflets.
      - Simple leaves - undivided blades. May have teeth, indentations, or lobes.
      - Epidermis - surface of a leaf. Covered by transparent epidermal cells (most without chloroplast); has a waxy cuticle with possible glands (trichomes); and lower epidermis has numberous stomata flanked by guard cells.
      - Mesophyll - cells between the upper and lower epidermis. Most eudicot leaves have two types; Monocot leaves usually are not differentiated into palisade/spongy layers.
        
        Palisade mesophyll - two rows of tightly packed chlorenchyma (ground tissue) cells.
        
        Spongy mesophyll - loosly arranged cells with many air spaces in between.
    - - Shade leaves - larger leaves with less mesophyll.
      - Insectivorous leaves - insect consuming. Grown in areas that are deficient or where species are incapable of needed element uptake.
      - Window leaves - succulent and cone-shaped leaves that allow photosynthesis underground.
      - Reproductive leaves - plantlets capable of growing independently into a full-sized plant.
      - Spines - leaves that serve as a physical deterrent and to reduce water loss.
      - Floral leaves - surrounds true flowers and behave as showy petals.
- - - - Parenchyma - storage, photosynthesis, and secretion. Most common plant cell; living protoplasts age for years; function is storage, photosynthesis, and secretion; and relatively unspecialized cells.
      - Collenchyma - support, and protection. Supports plant organs; allows bending without breaking; and living protoplasts age for years.
      - Sclerenchyma - support, and protection. Tough and thick cell walls; at maturity, usually lack living protoplasts; secondary cell wals contain lignin; and have two types that strengthen tissue.
        
        Fibers - long, slender cells usually grouped.
        
        Sclereids - varried shapes (usually branched), and may be grouped or separated.
    - - Xylem - principle water-conducting tissue. Composed of two tissues; conducts inorganic ions (nitrates) and supports plant cody; and includes fiber and ground tissue cells in tissue (sclerenchyma and parenchyma).
        
        Vessels - dead cylindrical tubes. Shorter and wider than tracheids.
        
        Tracheids - dead cells that taper at their end and ovelap.
      - Phloem - principle food conducting tissue. Composed of two elongated cell types; and contains sieve plates (sieve areas) that are living cells with clusters of pores.
        
        Sieve cell - elongated cell found in pterophytes and gymnosperms.
        
        Sieve tube - elongated cell found in angiosperms that are more specialized as companion cells compared to a sieve cell.
    - - Guard cells - forms passageway for O_2, CO_2, and H_2O vapor. Paired sausage-shaped cells that flank stoma (epidermal opening); and patterning genes reveal cell-cell coordination where cells inform of their positions and determine their fates.
      - Trichomes - hairlike outgrowths of the epidermis. Cellular or multicellular; keeps leaf surfaces cool and reduces evaporation by covering stomata; and some are glandular that secrete substances to deter herbavory.
      - Root hairs - tubular extensions of individual epidermal cells. Increase root surface area and absorption (not a lateral root).
  - - - Cork cambium - producer of woody plant's outer bark.
      - Vascular cambium - woody plant's secondary vascular.