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Animal form, function, & nutrition (Animal Nutrition: (Food processing…

- - - - animals must exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases w/ their environment
      - exchange occurs as substances dissolved in an aqueous solution move across the plasma membrane of each cell
        
        a single celled organism has a sufficient membrane surface area in contact with its environment to carry our all necessary exchange
        
        a multicellular organization therefore only works if every cell has access to a suitable aqueous environment, either inside or outside the animal's body
        
        many animals w/ a simple internal organization have body plans that enable direct exchange between almost all their cells & the external environment
        
        ex: pond dwelling hydra, their gastrovascular cavity opens to the external environment
      - increasing the number of cells decreases the ratio of outer surface area to total volume
        
        ex: the ratio of outer surface area to volume for a whale is hundreds of thousands of times smaller than a water flea
        
        every cell in the whale must be bathed in fluid and have access to oxygen, nutrients, and other resources
        
        the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and excretory system help with the internal exchange in complex animals
        
        interstitial fluid: the spaces between cells are filled w/ this fluid
    - - tissues: groups of cells w/ a similar appearance and a common function
        
        organs: different types of tissues is further organized into functional units (organs)
        
        Organ System:
        
        Digestive: for food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
        
        main organs: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
        
        Circulatory: internal distribution of material
        
        main organs: heart, blood vessels, blood
        
        Respiratory: Gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal of carbon dioxide)
        
        main organs: lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
        
        Immune and lymphatic: body defense (fighting infections and virally induced cancers)
        
        main organs: bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
        
        Excretory: disposal of metabolic wastes, regulation of osmotic balance of blood
        
        main organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
        
        Endocrine: coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)
        
        main organs: pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone- secreting glands
        
        Reproductive: gamete production; promotion of fertilization; support of developing embryo
        
        main organs: ovaries or testes and associated organs
        
        Nervous: coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
        
        main organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
        
        Integumentary: protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
        
        main organs: skin and its derivatives
        
        skeletal: body support, protection, of internal organs, movement
        
        main organs: skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
        
        Muscular: locomotion and other movement
        
        main organs: skeletal muscles
        
        Animal tissue type:
        
        Epithelial tissue: cover the outside of the body and line organs and cavities w/in the body
        
        stratified squamous epithelium: new cells formed by division near the basal surface push outward, replacing cells that are sloughed off
        
        located on the outer skin and the linings of the mouth, anus, and vagina
        
        Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: forms a mucous membrane that lines portions of the respiratory tract
        
        simple squamous epithelium: the exchange of material by diffusion; lines blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs
        
        simple columnar epithelium: found where secretion or active absorption is important
        
        cuboidal epithelium: specialized for secretion, makes up the epithelium of kidney tubules, and many glands, including the thyroid gland & salivary glands
        
        Connective tissue: consisting of a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix, holds many tissues and organs together in place
        
        Fibroblast: numerous cells w/in the matrix, which secrete fiber proteins and macrophages
        
        loose connective tissue: binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
        
        furious connective tissue: dance w/ collagenous fiber found in tendons
        
        bone: a mineralized connective tissue
        
        blood: has a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma which consist of red blood cells or white blood cells
        
        cartilage: strong flexible support material. Located in the disks that act as cushions between vertebrae
        
        Adipose tissue: a specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix; insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules
        
        Muscle tissue: tissue responsible for nearly all types of body movement
        
        skeletal muscle: responsible for voluntary movements; attached to bones by tendons; contains muscle fiber
        
        smooth muscle: found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs
        
        cardiac muscle: forms the contractile wall of the heart
        
        Nervous tissue: functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information
        
        neurons: receives nerve impulses from other neurons via its cell body dendrites
        
        glia: help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
    - - animals have 2 major systems for coordinating and controlling responses
        
        Endocrine system: signaling molecules released into the bloodstream by endocrine cells are carried to all locations in the body
        
        Hormones: the signaling molecules that are broadcasted throughout the body
        
        different hormones cause distinct effects, and only cells that have receptors for a particular hormone respond
        
        well adapted for coordinating gradual changes that affect the entire body, such as growth, development, reproduction
        
        nervous system: neutrons transmit signals along dedicated routes connecting specific locations in the body
        
        nerve impulses travel to specific target cells along communication lines consisting mainly of axons
        
        well suited for directing immediate and rapid responses to the environment such as reflexes
  - - - requires a control system
        
        maintaining a variable, such as a set point
        
        ex: body temp is a set point
        
        a fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point serves as the stimulus detected by a sensor
        
        a control center generates the output that triggers the response
      - negative feedback: a control mechanism that "damps" its stimulus
        
        ex: when you exercise, you start to sweat to cool your body and return to regular body temp
      - Positive feedback: a control mechanism that amplifies the stimulus
        
        ex: labor, the contractions result in greater pressure against the opening of the uterus, until the baby is born
      - homeostasis is sometimes altered by acclimatization (an animal's physiological adjustment to changes in its external environment
  - - - endothermic: warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism
        
        ex: some fishes and insect species
        
        in hot environments, they have mechanisms for cooling their bodies
        
        generates enough heat to keep its body warmer than its surroundings
        
        can vary heat production to match changing rates of heat loss
      - ectothermic: they gain most of their heat from external sources
        
        Ex: a bird will warm itself when the sun is out
        
        adjust their body temperature by behavioral means, like seeking out shade
    - - controlling the exchange of heat w/ its environment consist of 4 processes
        
        radiation: such as when a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the distant sun
        
        evaporation: like evaporation of water from a lizards moist surfaces that are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect
        
        convection: a breeze passing the lizard's dry skin
        
        conduction: the direct transfer of heat between molecules of objects in contact w/ each other
      - integumentary system: the outer covering of the body, consisting of the skin, hair, and nails
      - Insulation: reduces the flow of heat between an animal's body and it's environment
        
        found at the body surface, such as hair and feathers, and beneath layers of fat formed by adipose tissue
        
        often animals can adjust their insulating layers to further regulate body temperature
        
        most mammals react to cold by raising their fur, which traps a thicker layer of air, thereby increasing insulation
  - - - energy is measured in joules or calories, and kilocalories
- - - - Ex: cattle, sea slugs, caterpillars
    - - ex: sea otters, hawks, and spiders
    - - ex: humans, crows
  - - - chemical energy for cellular processes
      - organic building blocks for macromolecules
      - essential nutrients: it's the substances that an animal requires but can't assemble from simple organic molecules
        
        essential amino acids: all organisms require a standards set of 20 amino acids to make a complete set of proteins
        
        the proteins in animal products, such as meat, eggs, and cheese are complete
        
        essential fatty acids: animals typically obtain it from seeds, grains and veggies
        
        vitamins: are organic molecules that are required in the diet in very small amount
        
        there are 13 vitamins required by humans
        
        ex: Biotin, ascorbic acid, thiamine, retinol
        
        can be found in pork, dairy products, green veggies, egg yolk, nuts, tea, and many more
        
        Minerals: inorganic nutrients that are usually required in small amounts
        
        ex: calcium, potassium, chlorine, iron
        
        found in salt, dairy products, dark green veggies, meats, tea, and many more
        
        Malnutrition: failure to obtain adequate nutrition
  - - - filter feeders: strain small organisms or food particles from surrounding medium
      - substrate feeding: animals that live in or on their food source
      - fluid feeding: fluid feeders suck nutrient- rich fluid from a living host
      - bulk feeding: when eating large pieces of food
        
        ex: humans are bulk feeders
    - - Mechanical digestion, such as chewing or grinding, breaks food into smaller pieces
      - chemical digestion cleaves large molecules into smaller components
    - - ex: amino acids and simple sugars
    - - intracellular digestion: the hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles
    - - gastrovascular cavity: functions in digestion as well as in the distribution of nutrients throughout the body
  - - - teeth with specialized cut, mash and grind, breaking the food into smaller pieces
      - Salivary glands: releases saliva; the food in the oral cavity triggers it
        
        Mucus: lubricates food for easier swallowing, protects the gums against Branson, and facilitates taste and smell
        
        Anylase: an enzyme that breaks down starch
      - the tongue aids digestive processes by evaluating ingested material, distinguishing which food should be processed further
    - - esophagus: a muscular tube that connects to the stomach
        
        within the esophagus food is pushed along by peristalsis, alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation
        
        sphincter: a ringlike valve of muscle acting like a drawstring, regulating passage of the ingested food into the next compartment, the stomach
      - trachea: a windpipe that leads to the lungs
    - - gastric juice: mixes it w/ the food through a churning action
        
        protease: protein digested enzyme
    - - duodenum: the first 25 cm in the small intestine
        
        pancreas: secretes bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer for chemical digestion in the small intestine
      - liver: where bile is made and needed to make fats soluble (in order to be digested)
        
        gallbladder: where the bile is concentrated
      - Heptic portal vein: a blood vessel that leads directly to the liver, from the liver blood travels to the heart and then to other tissues and organs
      - Chylomicrons: the fat globs
  - - - Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus: polsaccarides (starch) gets broken down to smaller polysaccharides with the help of salivary amylase
        
        then in the small intestine, pancreatic amylases breaks it down to disaccharides
        
        after that, its broken down to monosaccharides
    - - In the stomach, pepsin breaks proteins down to small polypeptides
        
        in small intestine, proteases breaks it down to even smaller polypeptides. pancreatic carboxypeptidase breaks it down to small peptides
        
        then broken down to amino acids
    - - IN small intestine, DNA and RNA are broken down to nucleotides by pancreatic nucleases
        
        the enzymes from intestinal epithelium, nucleotidases, breaks it down to nucleosides
        
        nucleosides and phosphates break nucleosides into nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates
    - - In small intestine, fat is broken down to glycerol, fatty acids, by pancreatic lipase
  - - - as food arrives at the stomach, it stretches the stomach walls triggering release of gastrin
    - - chyme passes from the stomach to the duodenum, which responds by releasing cholecystokinin and secretin
      - cholecystokinin stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and of bile from the gallbladder
      - secretin stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate which neutralizes chyme