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Animal Forms and Nutrition (Basics of Animal Forms and Functions (Energy…
Animal Forms and Nutrition
Basics of Animal Forms and Functions
Thermoregulation
The process by which animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range
Endothermic
They are warmed mostly by heat generated through metabolism
Ex: Mammals and Birds
Can adjust insulating layers to maintain and regulate their body temperature
Evaporation heat loss to help cool off if too hot; Sweating/Panting
Can manage heat production (thermogenesis) to match changing rates of heat loss
Hypothalamus holds sensors responsible for thermoregulation
Homeotherms
Relatively constant body temperature
Ectothermy
Gain most of their heat from external sources
Ex: Amphibians, non-avian reptiles, and fishes
Generally use heat from the sun to warm themselves up, or water to cool themselves down
Scales retain water and allow for internal temperatures to remain constant
Acclimatization
An animal's physiological adjustment to its external environment
Poikilotherms
Body temperature varies with environment
Energy Requirements
Metabolic Rate
The sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given time interval
Basal Metabolic Rate
The minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress
Measured under "comfortable" temperature range
Standard Metabolic Rate
The metabolic rate of a fasting, nonstressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature
Larger Animals have more body mass and therefore require more chemical energy
Metabolic rate remains roughly proportional to body mass to the three-quarter power (m^3/4)
Maximum metabolic rates occur during peak activity
Torpor
A physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
Helps animals save energy in the face of difficult conditions
HIbernation
Long term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
Metabolic rates during hibernation can be 20 times lower than if the animal attempted to maintain normal body temps.
Homeostasis
The maintenance of internal balance, a relatively constant internal environment
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Set Point
A variable at a particular value that allows an animal to maintain homeostasis
Stimulus
A fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point
Sensor
Detects change in stimulus and alerts the hypothalamus or other systems to the change
Response
Output triggered to help return the variable to it's set point
Circadian Rhythm
A set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
Feedback Control
Negative Feedback
A control mechanism that "damps" its stimulus
Plays a major role in maintaining homeostasis in animals
Ex: When exercising humans begin to grow hot which triggers sweating to cool off their bodies
Positive Feedback
A control mechanism that amplifies the stimulus
Do not play a major role in homeostasis, but do assist in completing the process
Ex: Regulation of Blood Clotting
Animal Organs and Tissues
Organs
Tissues organized into functional unites
Organ Systems
Groups of organs that work together providing an extra level of organization
Endocrine
Pituitary, Thyroid, Pancreas, Adrenal, Other Hormone secreting glands
Coordination of body activities
Reproductive
Ovaries or testes and associated organs
Gamete production; zygotic formation and support for embryos
Excretory
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Disposal of metabolic waste; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Nervous
Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves, Sensory organs
Coordination of body activities, stimuli detection and response formulation
Immune and Lymphatic
Bone Marrow, Lymph Nodes, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph Vessels
Body Defense
Integumentary
Skin and its derivatives
Protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration and maintaining that good temperature
Respiratory
Lungs, Trachea, Other Breathing Tubes
Gas Exchange; Oxygen intake --> Carbon Dioxide output
Skeletal
Skeleton (Bones, Tendons, Ligaments, Cartilage)
Body support, protection of internal organs and movement
Circulatory
Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood
Internal distribution of materials
Muscular
Skeletal Muscles
Locomotion and other movement
Digestive
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Intestines, Liver, Pancreas, Anus
Food Processing
Tissues
Groups of cells with a similar appearance and a common function
Connective
Consists of sparse populations of cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix, holds tissues and organs in place
Bone
Mineralized connective tissue
Adipose Tissue
Specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells
Fibrous Connective TIssue
Dense with collagenous fibers
Cartilage
Collagenous fibers inside rubbery protein-carbohydrate complex called chondrotin sulfate
Loose Connective Tissue
Most widespread connective tissue in vertebraes
Blood
Has a liquid extracellular matrix (plasma)
Muscle
Tissue responsible for nearly all types of body movement
Smooth Muscle
Lacks striations and is responsible for involuntary body activities
Cardiac Muscle
Forms the contractile wall of the heart, striated but with branched fibers that go from cell to cell to aide in heart contraction
Skeletal Muscle
Attached to bones by tendons, striated muscle, responsible for voluntary movements
Epithelial
Covers the outside of the body and line organs and cavities in the body
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Single layer of platelike cells
Aide in diffusion; good in areas where gas and nutrient diffusion is critical
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Large, brick shaped cells
Found where secretion and active absorption is important
Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelium
A single layer of cells varying in height and position of nuclei
Forms a mucous membrane that lines portions of the respiratory tract
Cubodial Epithelium
Dice shaped cells, specialized for secretion
Makes up kidney tubules and many glands
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Multilayered and regenerates rapidly
Commonly found on surfaces subject to abrasion
Nervous
Functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of info
Neurons
Basic units of the nervous system that receive and transmit data throughout the body
Dendrites, cell body, axon
Glia
Help nourish, insulate and replenish neurons, can sometimes modulate neuron function
Animal Nutrition
Mammalian Digestive System
Mouth
Consists of the tongue and salivary glands
Where food is taken into the body and carbohydrate breakdown begins
Pharynx
Throat region that leads to two passageways
Esophagus
A muscular tube that connects to the stomach
Food (bolus) is pushed down through the process of peristalsis (alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation)
Stomach
Plays two major roles in digestion
Food storage
Processing food into a liquid
Food mixes with gastric juices and becomes chyme
Contains large amounts of hydrochloric acid
Pepsin breaks down proteins and pepsinogen stops pepsin when it is done
Liver
Secretes bile for digestion
Filters toxins out of blood (like alcohol or things absorbed from food)
Gallbladder
Stores and concentrates bile from liver
Pancreas
Secretes bicarbonate to neutralize the acidity of chyme
Also secretes numerous digestive enzymes into the small intestine
Acts as a buffer for chemical digestion in the small intestine
Small Intestine
The alimentary canals longest component
Primarily functions in fat digestion, as well as digestion and absorption of other nutrients as well
Villi and microvilli aide in absorption of fat for the lymbic system and other nutrients
Large Intestine
Where the alimentary canal ends, including the colon, cecum and rectum
Absorbs the last amount of water from digested food
Has mutualistic bacteria that aide in keeping your stomach healthy and processing that last amount of food
Cecum
Important for fermenting ingested material, especially important for herbivores, or animals that ingest large amounts of plant material
Rectum
Where feces is stored until it is eliminated
Anus
The final step of digestion, where excrement is eliminated
Appendix
Worthless now
Believed to be a modern vestigial structure, thought to have served as an area for symbiotic microorganisms
Evolution of Vertebrate Digestive System
Dental Adaptations
As mentioned above, different food sources required different formation of teeth
Flat for grinding down plant material
Sharp for ripping and tearing flesh and meat
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
Longer digestive tract furnishes more time for digestion and more surface area for nutrient absorption
Mutualistic Adaptations
Microbiome
The collection of microorganisms living in and on the body
Humans and intestinal bacteria that regulate intestinal health and produce essential things
Food Processing
Ingestion
The act of eating or feeding
Four Main Feeding Mechanisms
Substrate Feeding
Animals that live on or inside their food source
Fluid Feeding
Suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host
Filter Feeding
Strains small organisms or food particles from the surrounding medium (Aquatic Animals)
Bulk Feeding
Eat relatively large pieces of food
Digestion
The second stage of food processing where food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
Intracellular Digestion
The hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles begins after a cell engulfs food via phagocytosis or liquid food by pinocytosis
Extracellular Digestion
The breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body
Gastrovascular Cavity
Absorption
The animal's cells take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars
Elimination
Undigested material passes out of the digestive system, completing the process
Alimentary Canal
A complete digestive tract, food moves along the canal in a singular direction
Animal Diets
Carnivores
Mostly eat other animals
Generally have sharp and pointy teeth designed for ripping flesh and tendons
Are built to digest meat
Omnivores
Regularly consume other animals as well as plants and algae
Generally have a combination of sharp teeth and flat teeth to combine tearing and grinding
Herbivores
Ingest mainly plants or algae
Have flat, wide teeth specifically designed for grinding plants or algae
Essential Nutrients
Substances that an animal requires but cannot assemble from simple organic molecules
Essential Fatty Acids
Fats obtained through food consumption
Linoleic Acid (mammals)
Vitamins
Organic molecules that are required in the diet in very small amounts
Thirteen total vitamins required by humans (pg. 898 Table 41.1)
Essential Amino Acids
Amino acids that must be obtained from an animal's food
Phenylalanie
Threonine
Methionine
Tryptophan
Lysine
Valine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Minerals
Inorganic nutrients that are usually required in small amounts
12 total minerals for humans (pg. 899, Table 41.2)
Dietary Deficencies
Insufficient intake of essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease and even death
When malnourished, the body first begins breaking down stored carbs and fat, then moves onto breaking down it's own proteins
