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LEARNING (any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by…

- - - - Reflex: a involuntary response
        
        Dogs started salivating before they were suppose to : salivating at sight of lab assistants
        
        Discovered classical conditioning
      - Classical conditioning: learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex
        
        Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response. Ex: Food
        
        Unconditioned response (UCR): an involuntary response to a naturally occuring or unconditioned stimulus
        
        Conditioned Stimulus (CS): stimulus that become able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original
        
        Conditioned response (CR): learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. Ex: salivation in response to lab assistance
        
        works best when
        
        CS comes before:
        
        CS predicts UCS
        
        UCS quicky follows CS:
        
        No more than 5 seconds between them
        
        UCS and CS paired together times:
        
        CS is strong predictor for UCS
        
        CS stands out from other:
        
        CS is distinctive predictor of the UCS
        
        Key Feaures
        
        Stimulus generalization: response to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS
        
        Stimulus discrimination: response to a different stimuli in different ways
        
        Extinction: Presentation of the CS in the absence of the UCS leads to reduction in the CR
        
        Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished CR
        
        High-order conditioning: occurs when strong CS is paired with new neutral stimulus; new previously neutral stimulus becomes a second CS
      - why does it work?
        
        Cognitive Perspective: in classical conditioning, modern theory in which conditioning is seen to occur because the CS provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the UCS
        
        Conditioned emotional response (CER): emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
        
        Can lead to phobias
        
        Vicarious Conditioning: classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person
        
        Conditioned taste aversion: is one situation were classical conditioning can occur quickly without repeated pairings
        
        Pavlov: stimulus substitution occurs where the CS comes to activate the same part of the brain that was originally activates by the UCS
        
        Another Experiment ws John B. Watsos's " Little Albert" experiments
        
        Loud sound (UCS) paired with white rat (CS)
        
        Albert became afraid of rat,rabbit,dog,coat, and mask
    - - Operant conditioning: the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to response
        
        Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning
        
        Classical conditioning:
        
        Learning depends on what happens before the response
        
        Automatic, involuntary behavior
        
        Operant Conditioning:
        
        Learning depends on what happens after the reponse:
        
        Voluntary behavior
        
        Reinforcement : anything that, when following a response, increases the probality that the response will occur
        
        Primary reinforcer: any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger , thirst, or touch
        
        Secondary reinforcer: any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise,tokens or gold stars:
        
        becomes a reinforcer through classical conditioning
        
        Primary reinforcer is UCS
        
        Secondary reinforcer is CS
        
        Positive reinforcement: presence of (pleasurable) stimulus
        
        Negative reinforcement: removal of (unpleasanr) stimulus
        
        Continous reinforcement: reinforcement of each and every correct response
        
        Results in quicker learning of desired behavior
        
        Ex: food from vending machine
        
        Partial reinforcement: reinforcement of some,but not all, correct responses
        
        Results in desired behavior that is more resistant to extinction:
        
        know as the partial reinforcement effect
        
        FIxed interval: the interval of time required for reinforcement is always the same:
        
        Examples: paycheck every two weeks, scheduled exams
        
        Variable interval: the interval of time required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event
        Example: checking email, pop quizzes
        
        Fixed ratio: the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
        
        Example: video games, punch cards
        
        Variable ratio: the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event
        Example: slot machines, lottery tickets
        
        Timing of reinforcement: influences speed of learning, strength of learned response, and subsequent behavior pattern
        
        Shaping: reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired complex behavior
        
        Successive approximation: small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior
        
        Some limits to shaping
        
        1 more item...
        
        Punishment: Anything that, when following a response, decrease the probability that the response will occur again
        
        Positive Punishment : Presence of (unpleasant) stimulus
        
        Punishment by application
        
        Generally not recommended for children:
        
        Can escalate into abuse
        
        Often ineffective in the long run
        
        Negative punishment: removal of ( pleasant) stimulus:
        
        Punishment by removal:
        
        most likely to be confused with " negative reinforcement"
        
        Often better for child development
        
        Thorndike's Law of Effect:
        
        if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence , it will tend to be repeated
        
        If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated
        
        Observational learning: learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior
        
        Learning/ performance distinction: learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior
        
        Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment:
        
        Control group : watched nonaggressive behavior
        
        Experimental group: watched aggressive behavior
        Children who watched aggressive behavior were more likely to behave aggressively towards the doll themselves
        
        Elements of Observational learning
        
        Attention: To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model
        
        Memory: The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that were first seen on a cooking show
        
        Imitation; The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model
        
        Desire the learner must have the motivation to perform the action
        
        Behavior Modification : use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior
        
        Token economy: desired behavior rewarded with tokens
        
        Time-out: misbehaving animals, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others
        
        Form of mild punishment
        
        Applied behavior analysis (ABA): modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired or response