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modules 34-36, module 36 (babbling stage: beginning around 4 months, the…
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module 36
babbling stage: beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
one-word stage: the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
two-word stage: beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
language: our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
linguistic influence: the weaker form of "linguistic relativity"0 the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is "relative to" our cultural language)
telegraphic speech: early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram- "go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs
Broca's area: helps control language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
morpheme: in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
Wernicke's area: a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
grammar: in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set or rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
aphasia: impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
phoneme: in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
linguistic determination: the string form of Whorf's hypothesis- that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
module 35
availability heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
intuition: an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
framing: the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affected decisions and judgments
heuristic: a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm
mental set: a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way often a way that has been successful in the past
confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
belief perseverance: clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
fixation: in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving
representativeness heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
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algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone-use of heuristics
module 34
cognition: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
prototype: a mental image or best example of a category.
-matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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convergent thinking: narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions