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Course Mind Map, Seed Plants I: Gymnosperms (Concepts (Manoxylic wood…

- - - - Place where microspores settled
    - - Permitted entry of sperm cells
    - - Tissue that surrounded the megasporangium
- - - - Tiny papery leaves
    - - Needles
    - - Pollen cones
    - - Seed cones
      - Cones bracts
        
        Ovuliferous scale
        
        Axiliary bud and its megasporophylls
- - - - Establishment growth
        
        Can occur in monocots with extremely broad stems
        
        The increase in width and addition of adventitious roots
      - Each vascular bundle is encased with strong, heavy fibers
        
        Gives a "woody" look
      - A vascular cambium never develops
  - - - Vascular cambia originates from cortex cells
        
        Some parenchyma cells differentiate into secondary vascular bundles
        
        Makes only parenchyma
    - - Woody vines typically grow larger into sectors of the cambium
    - - The secondary phloem located between two bands of xylem
      - Secondary phloem becomes new vascular cambium
      - After a short period cambium cells differentiate into xylem
      - Vascular cambium produces xylem and phloem
    - - Numerous vascular cambia arise
      - Storage parenchyma is increased dramatically
- - - - Allows oxygen to penetrate across the bark
      - Regions of aerenchymatous cork
  - - - Phloem between vascular cambium and cork cambium
    - - Tissues outside innermost cork cambium
    - - Forms periderm #
        
        Provides temporary protection
    - - Outer cells differentiate into cork cells (phellem cells)
- - - - Lighter wood around the heartwood
    - - Darker wood in the center of the log
  - - - Some call them growth rings
  - - - Procumbent cells
        
        Stores starch in these cells
      - Upright cells
        
        Cells that connect the two systems
      - Derives from ray initials
    - - Softwoods
        
        Wood from conifers w/ few or no fibers
      - Hardwoods
        
        Wood from angiosperms and eudicots w/ lots of fibers
      - Always contains tracheary elements
      - Derives from fusiform initials
- - - - Or irregularly (nonstoried cambium)
  - - - albuminous cells
      - Storage parenchyma
  - - - Two cells are formed
        
        The other forms a secondary xylem of secondary phloem
        
        Depends on whether it is the inner (X) or outer cell (P)
        
        One stays a fusiform initial
    - - 700-8,700 micrometers in conifers
      - 140-462 micrometers in dicots
  - - - Has only two cell types
        
        Ray initials
        
        Fusiform initials
      - Found mostly in roots and stems
      - Extended each year
    - - Parenchyma cells that resume mitosis between vascular bundles
    - - Cells that continue to divide between the metaxylem and metaphloem
- - - - In turn causes more photosynthesis
  - - - Tissue types
        
        Bark (secondary phloem)
        
        Wood (secondary xylem)
      - Meristems
        
        Cork cambium
        
        Vascular cambium
  - - - Leaves
      - Cortex
      - Pith
      - Vascular bundles
      - Epidermis
- - - - Dominance is more complex
      - Polymorphic
  - - - Some annual plants will be determined after death
      - The pure dominants and pure recessives are seperated
        
        Heterozygous are not in these groups
        
        These groups are known as pure-breed lines
    - - To determine, a random F1 plant is crossed with the recessive F1
      - Hard to determine genotypes from phenotypes
        
        Unless recessive phenotype
    - - Genotype is determined by phenotype
  - - - Only shown if both alleles are lowercase letters
    - - Shown in phenotypes with capital letters
  - - - An Austrian monk who studied pea plants
    - - Two homozygous(RR,rr) and two heterozygous (Rr)
        
        1:2:1 ratio (RR:Rr:rr)
  - - - Not sex cells, but act as them
    - - In heterozygous individuals
      - Neither parental trait dominates the other
    - - Heterozygous individuals have two opposite alleles
    - - F2 generation is the offspring of F1
      - The F1 generation is the first offspring
        
        First filial generation
- - - - With no diversity, natural selection will not be needed
      - This causes the diversity in cells
  - - - Transposable elements #
        
        Most powerful tool for genetic analysis
        
        Transposon
        
        May actually be a virus
        
        Contain code for proteins
        
        Insertion sequence
        
        Contains the code for cutting enzymes
        
        Pieces of DNA that changes chromosomal positions
      - Caused by enzymes cutting and rejoining DNA
    - - Self-complementary sequences can form loops
        
        These bases are left out of the new DNA
        
        DNA polymerase can skip these bases
    - - Certain chemicals, UV, X-rays, and radiation
- - - - Group of genes known to be linked
    - - Approximately 1 million base pairs
      - Each 1% in recombination percentages
        
        Used to measure "space" between mutant alleles
    - - Homozygous cells after meiosis, linked to parents
    - - Formed from crossing-over and recombination of alleles
  - - - Hard to predict which allele is pulled to which pole
- - - - Named for each new double helix having a new and old strand
      - Where the DNA acts as a template for the complementary strand
    - - The ribonucleotides polymerized into primer RNA
        
        Approximately 10 nucleotides long
        
        Acts as a substrate for DNA polymerase
        
        DNA synthesizing enzyme
      - These are ribonucleotides
- - - - Survival is not governed by just one gene, but all of them
      - Allele survival is greater
      - Two parents
    - - Offspring is identical to parent
      - Involves one parent
  - - - Constructs RNA, proteins, and copies of the gene
      - A sequence of DNA nucleotides
- - - - White, red, or orange spots on a green plant
    - - Pollen from chlorophyll-bearing= 100% achlorophyllous offspring
      - Pollen from achlorophyllous= 100% chlorophyll offspring
      - Outcome depends what plant is the pollen and ovule parent
    - - Plastids are easier to read
        
        If chlorophyll synthesis alleles are studied
      - Mitochondrial genes are hard to read due to many mitochondria
      - Zygote gets all plastid and mitochondrial genes from maternal
      - AKA maternal inheritance
    - - All genes in the nucleus of cell go through this
      - Alleles from both parents are transmitted equally
- - - - Important because humans are members of communities
      - The interactions between populations #
- - - - Any substance that can lead to an increased growth rate
    - - Species that increase population despite competitors
    - - One organism restricts another's food source
    - - Organisms consume shared resources
  - - - 4.Probability of being eaten depends on abundance
      - Some prey will always be eaten, others will sometimes
      - Predator would be more successful in broadening diet
      - Predators prefer which prey yields most energy
      - Makes four predictions
    - - Attempts to understand why herbivores eat the plants they do
  - - - The amount of harvesting people can have
    - - Population health is determined by the amount of harvesting
    - - Point where growth goes from positive to negative
    - - Where predators overexploit prey, both species are lost
    - - Line indicating population stability
    - - N-number of prey, a-predator's attack rate, P-number of predator
      - dN/dt-rate of change, r-intrinsic rate
      - dN/dt=rN-aNP
    - - Predator's feeding rate and handling time
- - - - Number of species in each abundance class
    - - S-species, A-area, c and z are constants
      - Expressed by the formula S=cA^z
    - - The size of a plot of land used to study diversity
- - - - Layer of cells derived from the archegonium
    - - Cells that open the sporangium
    - - A caplike lid that was differentiated from the apex
    - - A narrow stalk between the foot and the capsule
    - - A simple apical sporangium
    - - Bulbous tissue made by basal cell division
  - - - Archegonia
        
        Megagametangia that produces eggs
      - Antheridia
        
        Microgametangia that produces sperm
    - - Protonema
        
        Systems of chlorophyllous cells
    - - Rhizoids
        
        Lack chloroplasts and have reddish walls
        
        Small, multicellular structures that penetrate substrates
      - Leptoids
        
        Cells that resemble sieve cells
      - Hydroids
        
        Cells that conduct water and minerals
    - - Gametophores
        
        Leafy stems of mosses
- - - - Elongated single cells with spring-shaped walls
  - - - Set of radiating fingers that project outward and downward
    - - Umbrella-shaped outgrowth
    - - Thallose liverworts
        
        Air pores
        
        Air chambers that open to the exterior
        
        Thallus
        
        A body without roots or stems
      - Leafy liverworts
        
        Greatly resemble moss
- - - - Have both vascular tissue and seeds
    - - Have vascular tissue, but no seeds
    - - Plants that have no vascular tissue or seeds
- - - - Campanulids
      - Lamiids (euasterids I)
    - - Found only in asterids
    - - Stamens alternate with petals
      - Few stamens
      - Sympetalous flowers # #
  - - - Malvids (eurosids II)
      - Fabids (eurosids I)
  - - - Sandalwood family, parasitic
    - - Perisperm
        
        Nutritive tissue in nucleus cells
      - Betalains
        
        Water soluble pigments in caryophyllalis
      - Anthocyanin pigments
        
        Pigments in other flowering plants
- - - - House plants: canna lillies and gingers
    - - Bromeliads and sedges
      - Grass family that also includes
    - - Palms
  - - - Open septa that secrete nectar
    - - Fused sides of carpels # #
- - - - Grows into fruit
- - - - Instead of CO2
  - - - Or glyoxysomes.
  - - - Plants produce Ethanol
    - - CO2 is released in plants
  - - - NADH and FADH2 drop electrons at cytochromes
      - Oxygen is final electron acceptor
      - Mass amounts of ATP are formed
      - H+ fall through the ATP synthase
      - H+ ions move against concentration gradient
      - Ocurrs across inner membrane
    - - Prep-step
        
        Acetyl CoA is formed
        
        Coenzyme A is added
        
        Carbon Dioxide is released
      - Occurs in Matrix
      - AKA Krebs Cycle
      - NADH, FADH2, ATP, and CO2 is released
      - Acetyl CoA is cycled through
    - - Occurs in the cytosol
      - NADH carries electrons
      - 2 Pyruvate are produced
      - Net gain of 2 ATP
        
        substrate phosphorylation
      - 2 ATP to initialize
- - - - 60-90 minutes to metabolize ethanol
    - - Fetal alcohol syndrome
  - - - Agave juices
        
        Mescal
        
        Tequila
      - Molasses based
        
        Rum
      - Grain-based
        
        Gin
        
        Whiskey
        
        Vodka
    - - Solution is heated
        
        Causing alcohol to evaporate
  - - - Red is at 25-30 degrees
    - - Mainly grapes
  - - - Enzymes reduce starch to glucose
- - - - broadleaf plants
- - - - Primary phloem
      - Primary Xylem
  - - - companion cells #
      - albuminous cells #
      - Sieve element
        
        Sieve tube members
        
        Sieve cells
    - - Transports water from cell to cell
        
        Through perforations in the cell wall
      - Tracheary element
        
        Vessel elements
        
        tracheids
- - - - Mechanical
        
        Takes alot of energy to make
        
        Often found in wood
        
        Made of fibers and sclereids
      - Conducting
        
        Transports water
    - - Elastic walls
  - - - This causes plasticity
  - - - Fruits and stamens
    - - Mediate short distance transport
    - - Transport large amounts of sugar
      - Contain few chloroplasts
      - Secrete nectar and oils
    - - aide in photosynthesis
      - These cells have many chloroplasts
- - - - Some attack all of the vascular tissue
  - - - Allows nitrogen fixating bacteria to enter plant cells
  - - - Fungi penetrate the root cortex cell, but can't pass the Casparian strip
    - - Fungi penetrate the outermost root cortex, but not the cells
  - - - Allows seeds to germinate near the ground
  - - - Brace the trunk against wind
  - - - Help with production of new shoots
- - - - Casparian strips control mineral intake
    - - Increases water and mineral absorption
  - - - Primarily a reserve of healthy cells
    - - Due to no disruptions from leaf primordia
- - - - Carrots, beets, and radishes
  - - - Gibberellin
      - Cytokinin
        
        Help with shoot growth and development #
    - - Their cylindrical shape helps absorb water from all sides
    - - Important for all plants because of stability
- - - - Root hairs form where there is no elongation
    - - Cells go through division and expansion
    - - Secretes a complex polysaccharide called mucigel
        
        Rich in carbohydrates and amino acids
        
        Lubricates passage for roots through soil
      - Constantly being worn away
      - Protects the root apical meristem
      - Located at the end of root
  - - - Roots that do not come from pre-existing roots
    - - Small lateral roots (branched roots)
        
        Can be swollen like a taproot
        
        More lateral roots can branch
      - Large taproot
        
        Develops from the radicle
        
        An embryonic root
- - - - No demarcation between living and nonliving objects
  - - - Created an oxidizing atmosphere
    - - Created aerobic respiration
      - Would allow the world to rust
  - - - Cellular respiration processes would form after
      - Glycolysis evolved early
    - - A second chemical process could form chemosynthetically
  - - - At some point heritable information was obtained
        
        Helped aggregate grow and reproduce
      - Not alive due to lack of genetic information
      - Would have simple "metabolism"
      - Controlled by relative solubility
  - - - Could have been the first primitive catalysts
  - - - Due to lack of oxygen
      - Had no limits for chemosynthetic origins
    - - Electricity was abundant
        
        Volcanoes produce lightning
        
        Triggered chemical reactions in the atmosphere
      - Heat
        
        Radioactive decay of heavy elements
        
        The coalescence of gas and dust
      - Intense UV and gamma radiation
    - - Second atmosphere replaced first
        
        Reducing atmosphere
      - First atmosphere was lost
        
        Hydrogen is a light gas
  - - - Absence of oxygen, O2
      - Great deal of time
      - Appropriate energy sources
      - Correct inorganic chemicals
- - - - Adaptive radiation
        
        Genetic drift
        
        Gene pool changes rapidly and erratically
        
        All offspring resemble founder individual(s)
        
        The seed (founder) where the gene pool started
        
        Usually happens when species have no competition
        
        Special case where species rapidly diverge
      - Biological reproductive barriers
        
        Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Hybrid inviablity is when a plant dies at an early age
        
        Hybrid sterility can cause plants to not reproduce
        
        When alleles get too distinct and cannot interbreed
        
        Evolutionary changes in pollinators #
        
        Act before zygotes form
        
        Called prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        Sympatric speciation
        
        When two groups grow together, but are reproductively isolated
        
        Any biological phenomena that prevents gene flow
      - Abiological reproductive barriers
        
        Ex: Mountains, deserts, oceans
        
        Can cause allopatric or geographic speciation
        
        Nonliving feature that prevents gene exchange
      - The new and old ranges are reproductively isolated
      - New gene ranges arise from not being homogenous
      - Populations evolve into a second species
    - - The movement of alleles is called gene flow #
        
        Vegetative propagation
        
        Species reproduce by small mobile vegetative pieces
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        Spreads by wind and animal
        
        Pollen transfer
        
        Rapid movement
        
        Can be transferred by wind or animals
        
        Pollen carries a full haploid genome
      - Often Requires millions of years
      - A species becomes a new different species
- - - - Ex: cold resistant allele is lost due to fungus killing the plant
      - If the plant dies from lack of a certain allele
  - - - Voluntary decision making
      - Planning
      - Intention
      - Purpose
    - - Does not always occur from outside sources
      - Genetic diversity allows for different survival
      - Two conditions must be met before occuring
        
        Progeny must differ from each other in allele types
        
        If all is identical, no mutations can occur
        
        Population must produce more offspring
        
        Affected by resources, predators, pathogens, and competitors
        
        Able to grow and mature
    - - In conjunction with artificial mutation
        
        Acridine dyes, UV, and Gamma rays try to increase new alleles
      - Process which humans change allele frequency
    - - Can be small or large phenomena
      - Many phenomena qualify as accidents
        
        Volcanic eruption, floods, hailstorms, drought
      - The organisms die and their alleles are lost
      - Events where an organism cannot adapt
- - - - Mutations that affect an individuals fitness # #
- - - - A single surface cell divides periclinally
    - - When surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
    - - Cluslters of sporangia where meiosis occurs
    - - Leaves a vascular cylinder called a leaf gap
    - - Modern day ferns
  - - - A main trunk, lateral branches, true leaves and roots
  - - - Have 30-kilobase inversion in their plastid DNA
      - Have megaphylls
      - Roots have exarch xylem
  - - - If branches produce sporangia, sporophyll would form
      - Parenchyma develops between telomes and lower branches (webbing)
      - Branches align on one plane (planation)
      - Telomes- branched lateral stems
    - - Megaphylls- leaves evolved from branch systems (seed plants)
      - Enations/microphylls (zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes)
      - Leaves on gameteophytes (nonvascular)
  - - - A single main trunk rather than several dichotomies
    - - Unequal branching where one stem is more vigorous
- - - - Small flap of tissue only in selaginellas
  - - - Sporangia that protect enations #
      - AKA strobili
  - - - Enations of the division Lycophyta #
- - - - Outgrowths which increased photostynthetic surface area
  - - - Siphonostele
        
        Occurs in ferns and seed plants
        
        Pith is present
      - Protostele
        
        Exarch protostele
        
        Metaxylem in center, protoxylem on the edges
        
        Endarch protostele
        
        Protoxylem in center, metaxylem on the outer edge
        
        Solid mass of xylem with no pith
    - - Homosporous
      - Equal dichotomous branching
      - Sporangenous central cells
    - - Both branches are equal size and vigor
- - - - Mitotically rather than meiotically
- - - - Typically eaten
    - - Indehiscent fruits
        
        Don't break open
      - Dehiscent fruits
        
        Break open, release seed
      - Not typically eaten
  - - - Fusion of all inflorescence fruits
    - - Fruit from separate fused carpels
    - - Fruit from one or fused ovaries
    - - If any non-ovarian tissue present
    - - Fruit w/ only ovarian tissue
- - - - Perigynous
        
        Organs around
      - Buried between organs
    - - Hypogynous
        
        Organs below
      - Above other organs
    - - Organs above inferior ovary
    - - Below other organs
  - - - Bilaterally symmetrical
    - - Radially symmetrical
    - - When both species evolve with each other
  - - - Monoecious
      - Species with male and female on same plant
    - - Dioecious species
      - Species with separate male and female flowers
    - - Sepals and petals
    - - Flower that have both central organs
    - - Flowers that lack at least one central organ
    - - Stamens and carpels
  - - - Reactions that prevent pollen growth
  - - - Pollination from same plant
- - - - Fruit wall
    - - Innermost layer
    - - Flesh
    - - Skin or peel
    - - Mature ovary
  - - - Integuments around nucellus
    - - Seed with little endosperm
    - - Mature seed with lots of endosperm
    - - Epicotyl
        
        Hypocotyl
        
        Root/shoot junction
        
        Embryonic stem
      - Embryonic root
    - - End of embryo, primordia
    - - Stalk that pushes embryo into endosperm
  - - - Fertilization of the egg and endosperm
    - - Endosperm
        
        Tissue that nourishes zygote
      - The triploid part of the central cell
    - - Fusion of the nuclei
    - - Fusion of protoplasts
  - - - Embryo sac
        
        Egg apparatus
        
        Two synergids and egg
        
        Central cell
        
        Three antipodals
        
        Two polar nuclei
        
        Multinucleate megagametophyte
    - - Pollen tube
        
        Germinated pollen grain that penetrates stigma
      - Generative cell
        
        Divides to form two sperm cells
      - Vegetative cell
        
        Cell within the pollen grain
  - - - Megasporocytes (megaspore mother cells)
        
        Holds egg
      - Made of 3 parts
        
        Ovary
        
        Placentae contain ovules
        
        Ovules have parenchyma called nucellus # #
        
        Produces megaspores
        
        Style
        
        Elevates stigma
        
        Stigma
        
        Catches pollen
      - Constitute the gynoecium
    - - Two part
        
        Anther
        
        Microsporocytes (microspore mother cells)
        
        Produces the pollen
        
        Tapetum
        
        Surround microsporocytes
        
        Where pollen is produced
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk of stamen
      - Above petals, together known as androecium
    - - Sepals and petals make the perianth
      - Together are known as a corolla
      - Above the sepals
    - - All sepals together are called a calyx
      - Outermost flower appendage
    - - Incomplete flowers lack at least one # #
      - Flowers with sepals, petals, stamen, and carpels
    - - Where the rest of the flower is attached
    - - Flower stalk
  - - - Heteromorphic generations
        
        No resemblance between gametophyte and sporophyte
      - Two generations
    - - Megagametophytes (female)
        
        Produces megaspores
      - Microgametophytes (male)
        
        Produces microspores
      - Produces gametes
        
        Megagametes (egg)
        
        Microgametes (sperm)
    - - Produces spores
      - Sporophytes are diploid
    - - Fertilized egg
    - - Syngamy (Fertilization)
        
        Fusion of gametes
      - Egg (female)
      - Sperm (male)
- - - - Immature fruits photosynthesize
        
        During maturation, chloroplasts convert to chromoplasts
      - Seedlings are heterotrophs during germination
        
        Become photoautotrophic when exposed to sunlight
    - - Roots, wood, and flowers
    - - Chlorophyllous leaves and stems
  - - - gather energy from organic materials
    - - gather energy from light
  - - - Sunlight maintains and increases order
        
        Indirectly
        
        Through respiration
        
        Directly
        
        Through photosynthesis
      - Entropy cannot be prevented
- - - - Contains copper atom
        
        Carries small distances
    - - Also carry e- short distances
    - - Small proteins that contain iron atom
        
        Moves e- short distances
  - - - Has redox potential
        
        The ability to accept and donate e-
      - NADH and NADPH are formed
        
        Reducing agents
      - They are oxidizing agents
    - - Especially important in plants
    - - Reduced compounds contain hydrogen
    - - Oxidative compounds often have oxygen
  - - - There are 3 ways ATP is produced
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
        
        Occurs in the last stage of respiration
        
        Substrate level phosphorylation
        
        When compounds give their phosphate away
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        Involves light energy
      - It is recycled and reused
      - However, it's a small fraction of plant bodies
    - - Two theories of transport
        
        Allow pigments to be less energized
        
        Guanosine triphosphate is also made
        
        ATP is produced for for energy
        
        Allow pigments into necessary reactions
        
        Problem: Pigments are large and not mobile
      - Energized pigments enter into two reactions
        
        Despite thousands of different reactions
- - - - Starch is made from many glucose molecules bonding together
      - Glucose is made by gluconeogenesis
        
        Made into glucose
        
        Rearranged into glucose-6-phosphate
        
        Loses a phosphate to become fructose-6-phosphate
        
        Then fructose-1,6-biphosphate
        
        PGAL is converted to dihydroxyacetone
    - - Long-term
        
        Starch and lipids
      - Intermediate-term
        
        Glucose and Sucrose
      - Short-term
        
        ATP and NADPH
  - - - Then reduced to 3-phoshpoglyceraldehyde
      - 3-phosphoglycerates are converted to 1,3-diphoshpoglycerates
      - RUBISCO is the enzyme that carries out this cycle
      - 2 3-phosphoglycerates are formed
      - An acceptor molecule reacts with CO2
  - - - chemiosmotic phosphorylation
        
        Cylic electron transport
        
        E- go back through the photosystems to get more energy
        
        Noncylic electron transport
        
        When e- flow smoothly from water
        
        Hydrogen ions are then diffused through the ATP synthase
        
        Hydrogen ions are pumped from stroma into lumen
    - - Reaction center P680
        
        Then goes to the plastoquinone
        
        Gives e- to cytochrome b6f
        
        Then donated to a plastocyanin to give to PSI
    - - Reaction center P700
        
        The e- is then passed to Fx
        
        Fx reduces the e- and passes it to ferredoxin
        
        Then passed to ferredoxin-NADP+ reductdase
        
        NADPH is formed
    - - Action spectrum
        
        Shows which wavelength is most effective
      - Absorption spectrum
        
        Shows which wavelength is most absorbed
      - These are called pigments
        
        Photosynthetic pigments captures light energy
        
        They form an antenna complex
        
        All pigments are carriers are in a photosynthetic unit
        
        Energy is transferred to the reaction center
        
        Accessory pigments
        
        Other pigments that absorb light
        
        The release of light is called fluorescence
        
        Causes an e- to be activated
        
        Goes from a grounded state to an excited state
        
        Chlorophyll a captures red and blue light
- - - - Not particularly effective, but can be useful for hot and dry areas
  - - - This will increase stromal reaction rates
  - - - Number of hours of light available
    - - The intensity of the light
    - - Depends on the different colors of light coming to
- - - - These blades can flex and flutter with no petiole
    - - Keeps insects away
      - Cools leaf off
      - Helps with CO2 levels
  - - - Multiple parts
        
        Can be pinnately
        
        Leaflets attached individually to the rachis
        
        Can be palmately
        
        Leaflets attached at the same point
        
        Attached by petiolule
        
        To the rachis
        
        Small blades (leaflets
    - - One part
- - - - Helps reduce water loss
- - - - Helps photosynthesis is some species
      - Help protect shoot apical meristem
  - - - Lateral veins branch out
        
        May have a bundle sheath
        
        Conduct and support leaf blade
      - Minor veins branch out
        
        And loading sugar
        
        Mainly used for releasing water
  - - - Spongy mesophyll
        
        Prevents rapid CO2 diffusion
        
        Lower portion of the leaf
      - Palisade parenchyma
        
        Main photosynthetic tissue
  - - - Waxy coating on epidermal cells
    - - Helps prevent dew drops and the prevention of CO2
      - Makes it hard for insects to walk and eat
      - Prevent rapid air movement in the lower surface
      - Provide shade to upper surface
- - - - The cells that grow above the apical meristem
      - Grows thicker as maturing
      - These cells differentiate into mature tissue
- - - - Form of active transport
      - Used to force molecules against its concentration gradient
    - - Allows some things to pass, while restricting others
    - - Membranes allow nothing to diffuse
    - - Membranes allow all substances to diffuse
- - - - When leaves dehydrate, they release abscisic acid
        
        Often occurs in the early afternoon on a warm, dry day
        
        A hormone that causes stoma to close and conserve water
      - Light also controls carbon dioxide intake
      - Light controls guard cell water relations
      - Numerous mechanisms have evolved to control stomatal activity
    - - Causes a block for transport
      - Air bubble
    - - Eventually all vessels and tracheids cavitate
      - Often means tracheids or vessels can never conduct water again
      - Hydrogen bonds breaking causes water columns to break
    - - Transcuticular transpiration
        
        Water lost directly through the cuticle
      - Transstomatal transpiration
        
        Water lost through stoma
      - Cohesion-tension hypothesis
    - - Water is heavy
        
        Requires a lot of energy to get water to the top of a tree
      - Adhesive
        
        Interacts strongly with the polymers of cell wall, tracheid, and
        vessel elements
        
        Molecules interact with other substances
      - Cohesive
        
        Molecules are strongly bound to each other
  - - - Found in all eudicots, most monocots, and not in conifers
      - P-protein plugs form when the mass of P-protein is too large
    - - Opposite is Sinks that are the receiving areas
- - - - Means of surviving stress
    - - In relation to others and environment
- - - - Any other long-lived conifer
      - Redwoods, douglas firs, bristlecone pines
      - Carrying capacity
    - - r-selected species
        
        Typically annuals or small-shrubbery perennials
      - Biotic potential #
  - - - Number of individuals that can live
    - - Number of offspring that reproduce
      - AKA intrinsic rate of natural increase
    - - Length of time between parent and offspring
  - - - Allelopathy
        
        Chemicals are called allelochemics
        
        Chemicals released that inhibit other plants
      - Uniform distributions
        
        Individuals are evenly spaced
      - Clumped distributions
        
        Rarely average space between plants
      - Random distribution
        
        No identifiable pattern in plant positions
    - - Limiting factor
        
        Determines the health of the plant
- - - - Organisms other than plants
        
        Fungi and prokaryotes
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Animal
        
        Herbivores
        
        Grazing
        
        Eating herbs
        
        Browsing
        
        Eats twigs and leaves
        
        Predation
        
        One benefits, the other is harmed
        
        Commensal relationships
        
        One benefits, the other is unaffected
        
        Frugivores
        
        Fruit-eating animals
      - Other plant species
        
        Transplant experiments
        
        Common garden
        
        An intermediate site for experimental plants
        
        Tests if ecotypes really exist
        
        Ecotypes
        
        Subpopulations specialized to a specific ecosystem
        
        Niche
        
        A species' particular set of conditions
        
        Competitive exclusion
        
        Less adapted species is excluded
        
        Competition
        
        Two species fight for resources
        
        Mutualism
        
        Beneficial for both organisms
      - The plant itself
    - - Disturbance
        
        Fire is common in dry ecosystems
        
        Fires, landslides, avalanche, floods
      - Latitude and altitude
      - Soil factors
        
        Soil has 3 horizons
        
        Horizon C
        
        Composed of parent rock and fragments
        
        Horizon B
        
        Zone of deposition
        
        Horizon A
        
        Zone of leaching
        
        Uppermost layer
        
        Pioneers are the first plants in new soil
      - Climate
        
        The tolerance range is between extremes #
        
        Ranges between species
        
        Components of climate
        
        Winds
        
        Humidity
        
        Rainfall
        
        Temperature
        
        Average is not as important as high and low extremes
        
        Important to all organisms
  - - - Portions of plants can migrate
        
        Spores, pollen, fruits, seeds,and vegetative propagules
      - Plants are non migratory