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The Human Endocrine System (Calcium Regulation (Thyroid Gland (Calcitonin-…

- - - - Hormones
        
        Prolactin- stimulates milk production. Hypersecretion-excess. Hyposecretion- less.
        
        Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (releasing- GnRH)- Stimulates oogenesis and estrogen production in females. Stimulates spermatogenesis in males. Hypersecretion- early puberty. Hyposecretion- late puberty.
        
        Lutenizing Hormone (LH) (releasing- GnRH)- produces sex hormones. Progesterone and ovulation in females and testosterone in males. Hypersecretion- excessive development, secondary sexual traits. Hyposecretion- less sexual development, no ovulation.
        
        Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (releasing- ACTRH)- LONG TERM STRESS- stimulates adrenal cortex to make mineralcoricoids (ex. aldosterone. increases sodium retention in distal tubule causing high blood pressure) and glucocordicoids (ex. cortisol. Increases blood sugar by mobilising protein, fat, and sugar stores). Caused by long term stress. Hypothalamus secretes ACTRH, anterior pituitary makes ACTH, adrenal cortex secretes mineralcorticoids and glucocortoids (liver and muscles to increase blood sugar), both inhibit hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. Hypersecretion- Cushing's Syndrome. Hyposecretion- Addison's Disease. SHORT TERM STRESS- adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (mobilise energy stores) which is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. Hypothalamus sends nerve impulse to adrenal medulla, adrenal medulla makes epinephrine and norepinephrine, fight or flight, parasympathetic nervous system prevents nerve impulses to the adrenal cortex.
        
        Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) (releasing-TRH)- stimulates thyroid gland to make thyroxine (made of iodine. no iodine=no thyroxine, no thyroxine=no negative feedback, no feedback=more TSH, causing the thyroid to grow). Hypothalamus secretes TRH, anterior pituitary secretes TSH, thyroid secretes thyroxine, thyroxine stimulates metabolism and inhibits anterior pituitary and hypothalamus. Hypersecretion- hyperthyroidism. Hyposecretion- hypothyroidism.
        
        Human growth hormone (hGH) (releasing- GHRH)- stimulates growth of muscles, bones, and organs, and increases the body's metabolism. Hypothalamus secretes GHRH, anterior pituitary secretes hGH, hGH stimulates growth, cell growth inhibits hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. Hypersecretion- giantism (from birth), acromegaly (from puberty). Hyposecretion- dwarfism.
  - - - Oxytocin-stimulates uterine muscles, increases muscle contraction around the mammary glands (milk let down). Hypersecretion- quick labour, milk leaking. Hyposecretion- hard labour and time with lactation. Positive feedback.
      - Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin (ADH)- reduces urine and increases water in blood by making the collecting duct more permeable. Increases smooth muscle contraction in blood vessels which increases blood pressure. Hypersecretion- high blood pressure, more water retention. Hyposecretion- Diabetes Insipidus caused by no ADH or kidney failure to respond to it.
        
        Osmotic pressure- relative concentration of water to ions. Concentrated=high pressure. Recognised in the hypothalamus.
        
        Osmoreceptors- HIGH-The blood takes water from osmoreceptors, they shrink, nerve impulse sent to release ADH, more water absorbed in collecting duct. LOW- The bloods loses water, osmoreceptors swell, nerve impulse is sent to stop releasing ADH, less water absorbed in collecting duct.
- - - - Reduce blood calcium levels. Kidneys stop Ca reabsorption -more Ca in urine. Intestine stops Ca absorption- more Ca excrement. Bones stimulate calcium deposition - more calcium in bones.
- - - - The Acinar cells make digestive enzymes.
      - Islets of Langerhaus make hormones
        
        Alpha Cells produce glucagon
        
        Response to decreased blood sugar levels and tries to raise them. The liver converts it to glucose.
        
        Beta cells produce insulin
        
        Response to increased blood sugar levels, which tries to lower it. Body cells take in sugar. The liver converts it to glycogen and adipose tissues turns it to fat.
  - - - Type 1 (Juvenile Onset)- no to not enough insulin produced, caused by degeneration of beta cells. Treated with artificial insulin injections and diet.
      - Type 2 (Adult Onset)- does not produce enough insulin or it is not recognised in the body, caused by insulin resistance due to chronic high blood sugar. Treated with diet and insulin injections.
      - Type 3 (Gestational Diabetes)- insulin receptors do not respond because of pregnancy hormones.
    - - Stem cells replace beta cells.
  - - - Caffeine has effects like epinephrine. 2. Anabolic Steroids have muscle building effects like testosterone. 3. Beta blockers prevents the action of epinephrine/norepinehrine. 4. Synthetic Human Growth Hormone decreases fat stimulates protein synthesis.
- - - - Body cells
        
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