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MEMORY (SENSORY MEMORY: WHY DO PEOPLE DO DOUBLE TAKES? (Sperling’s…

- - - - The period of time will actually be of differ- ent lengths, depending on the system of memory being used.
  - - - sight, sound, etc
- - - - storage
      - retrieval
      - Encoding
  - - - briefly holds information currently in use
    - - holds information more or less
        permanently
    - - very briefly holds sensory information
- - - - Point at which information enters the nervous
        system through the sensory systems
        
        Raw information held for a very brief period of time
      - High capacity, brief duration
  - - - Capacity: everything that can be seen at one time
      - Duration: less than 1 second
        
        New visual information “masks” old information
  - - - Briefly display array of letters
      - Once display is gone
        
        Ask participants to report as many letters as they can
    - - Briefly display array of letters
      - Once display is gone
        
        Use a tone to indicate one particular row
        
        Ask participants to report as many letters as they can
        from the indicated row
  - - - “Long” → 30 seconds or more
      - Sometimes what people mean by photographic memory
  - - - Capacity: limited to what can be heard at any one
        moment
        
        Smaller than capacity of iconic memory
      - Duration: 2 to 4 seconds
        
        Longer than duration of iconic memory
- - - - Duration: can be held for up 30 seconds
        
        Sometimes longer through maintenance rehearsal
      - Capacity: “magic number” 7 ± 2
  - - - How some information enters STM while other
        information doesn’t
  - - - Favor term “working memory”
    - - “STM” → simple storage
        
        STM Capacity George Miller used digit-span test to estimate
        capacity of STM
        
        Digit-span test
        
        a series of numbers is read to subjects
        who are then asked to recall the numbers in order
        
        Participants were able to recall about 7 items in order
        
        Magic number 7 ±2
        
        Chunking
        
        combining bits of information into
        meaningful units (or chunks)
        
        Allows for more information to be held in STM
        
        STM Duration
        
        Lasts about 12 to 30 seconds without
        rehearsal
        
        Maintenance rehearsal saying bits of information
        to be remembered over and over in one’s head
        
        Tends to be encoded in auditory form
        
        STM is susceptible to interference
        
        Especially likely to happen if amount of information
        exceeds capacity
        
        Example: trying to remember all the names of a
        bunch of people you just met
      - “Working memory” → active system
- - - - a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
  - - - memory for skills,
        procedures, habits, conditioned responses, etc.
        
        Not conscious memories, but affect conscious behavior
        
        Includes emotional associations, habits, and simple
        conditioned reflexes
    - - memory for
        information that is conscious and known
        
        Semantic memory
        
        general knowledge
        
        Knowledge of language, information learned in formal education
        
        Episodic memory
        
        personal information not readily
        available to others
        
        Daily activities and events
- - - - tendency for memory to be improved if related information available during encoding is also available during retrieval
      - Context-dependent learning
        
        physical surroundings ( classroom)
      - State-dependent learning
        
        physiological state or
        psychological state ( emotions)
- - - - essays, short answers, and fill-in-the-blanks
    - - recall has failed (at least temporarily)
      - Tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon
  - - - multiple choice, matching, and true/false
      - False positive
        
        error of recognition in which people think that
        they recognize a stimulus that is not actually in memory
        
        Case of Father Bernard Pagano
- - - - Eyewitness testimony is not always reliable
    - - Ask: About how fast were the cars going when they
        (contacted/hit/bumped/collided/smashed) each other?
      - Different speed estimates depending on question wording
- - - - Examples: JFK assassination, 9/11 attacks, personal experiences (like graduation)
      - Can be positive or negative
      - Special type of automatic encoding