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animal form, function. animal nutrient (animal organs systems (digestive,…
animal form, function. animal nutrient
animals exchange their nutrients, waste and gases with the environment
the internal body fluids link exchange surfaces to body cells, the spaces in the cell with fluid called interstitial fluid
the exchanges between interstitial fluid and circulatory fluid, enabling the cells throughout the body to obtain nutrients and rid of waste
animal organs systems
digestive
, food processing
includes, mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, the liver, pancreas, and anus
circulatory
, the internal distributions of materials
heart, blood vessels, and blood
respiratory,
gas exchange
lungs, trachea,
immune and lymphatic
, fight infection, the bodies defense
lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels, bone marrow
excretory
, metabolic waste disposal, osmotic regulation, balance of blood
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra
reproductive
, reproduction
ovaries and testes and other organs
nervous
, body activity coordination, detection of stumuli, and the responses
spinal cord, nerves, spinal cord, brain, and sensory organs
integumentary
, protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration, & thermoregulation
skin & other derivatives
skeletal
, body support, to protect internal organs, & movement
skeleton, cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments
muscular,
locomotion
skeletal muscles
animal tissue
epithelial
the tissue that covers the outside of the body and it also lines the organs
they protect against injury, pathogens, and fluid loss
five categories within epithelial tissue
Cuboidal epithelium, are diced shaped, the epithelium tissue makes up the kidney tubules and glands, thyroid and salivary
simple columnar epithelium, longer than they are tall. lines the intestine secreting juices & absorbing nutrients
simple squamous, one layer they are squished. they exchange material through diffusion, lines blood vessels & air sacs of lungs
pseudo-stratified columnar, they are nor stratified. forma mucous membrane lining the respiratory tract, beating cilia sweep the mucous
stratified squamous, protection. replace cells. found on surfaces that have abrasion, the outer skin, lining of mouth , anus & vagina
connective
, holds organs and tissue in place
there are collagenous fiber for strength & flexibility, & reticular fibers join connective tissues to adjacent tissues, elastic fibers are elastic
binding of the epithelia to underlying tissues holding organs in place. it is the skin and throughout the body
loose connective tissues
fibrous connective tissue
found in tendons, attach muscles to bones. in the ligaments that connect bones to joints
dark spots are nuclei
bone tissue
bone forming cells called osteoblasts, depositing a matrix of collagen
it has repeating units called osteons.
adipose tissue
stores the fat in adipose tissue, it insulates the body and stores fuel
adipose contain fat droplets, swelling when filled with fat and shrinks when used by the body
cartilage tissue
are strong but flexible b/c they are collagenous fibers that are embedded in a complex called chondroitin sulfate
located in between disks of vertebrates that allow cushion
blood tissue
, is a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma
there are red blood cells (erythrocytes). white blood cells (leukocytes), and there are also platelets
red cell carry the oxygen, the white cell are defense and platelets aid in clotting
muscle tissue
responsible for movement. cells consists of the filaments have actin and myosin that let the muscles contract
skeletal muscle
is striated
skeletal attaches bone to tendon, voluntary movement
smooth muscle
not striated, found in digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and internal organs
responsible for involuntary activity
cardiac muscle
forms the contractile wall of the heart, it is striated. cardiac have fibers that interconnect via intercalated disks, relaying signal from cell to cell and help synchronize heart contraction
nervous tissue
it receives, processes, and transmission of information. the tissue contains neurons that transmit nerve impulses and they have support cells called glia
neurons
, receive impulses form other neurons from dendrites. and neurons transmit impulses by axons
glia, nourish, insulate, also replenish the neurons.
feedback control maintaining internal environment
regulator,
uses their internal mechanisms controlling internal change when face with fluctuation
conformer
, changes in internal conditions changes with the environment
homeostasis,
steady state in the animals internal balance is kept constant to survive in their environment
homeostasis is a chain that has a beginning point and and end point. (it always comes back to the initial stimulus)
achieving homeostasis is maintaining a certain variable like set at a certain point or boys temp this is called the set point.
if temp affects the set point then it would effect the stimulus, affecting the stimulus can be detected by a sensor
so when the control signal gets a signal from the sensor triggering a response, this allows the body to return back to normal
a control mechanism called
negative feedback
reduces stimulus.
(for example when you its cold you start shivering as the body is trying to revert back to normal body temp
another control mechanism,
positive feedback
amplify the stimulus.
so the common ex: labor as the baby is pushing on the cervix, contractions happen until the baby come out, which goes back to negative feedback
thermoregulation
, is a way for animals to maintain a body temp in normal range
endotherm,
a animal who gets their heat from metabolism, so humans and birds we eat and that is burned which is used as heat
ectotherm
, heat is gained from the environment. so animals that bask in the sun such as a lizard is how they regulate temp
endotherms have to consume a lot more food as they use more energy while ectotherms can consume less
there are animals that can be poikilothermic are considered endotherms and homeotherm are ectotherms but they can go both ways
the terms cold and warm blooded are misconceptions, for ex: snakes are ectotherms but bask in the sun in which they gain heat warming up to a higher temp
balancing heat gain and loss
the animals are able to exchange heat by convection, evaporation, conduction, radiation
radiation, animals gets heat from the sun radiating down on them
convection, transfering heat by movement of air and liquid past the body
conduction, transfer of heat between tow objects that are touching
evaporation, removal of heat from the surface or a liquid as it changes to a gas
insulation is another way to reduce heat loss which most mammals have such as blubber, feathers, fur.
circulatory adaptions, heat flow between interior and exterior part of the body
animals can alter amount of blood flowing in between core and skin as the environment changes.
can alter the amount of blood by vasodilation which widens the blood vessels, increases vessel diameter and blood flow increase
and also vasoconstriction, decreases diameter of blood flow, thus reducing heat transfer and blood flow
when the temp changes the body temp goes up as well, so when this happens evaporation is how they control their body temp
b/c animals lose water by evaporation. and water can adsorb heat when evaporated and the heat can be carried away
sweating, panting can help with cooling down the body relasing heat
animals control body temp by how they act, snakes lay out in sun to match the environment
ex: dragon fly have a position called obelisk they do to soak up less heat, and spread out wings is them soaking heat
energy conversation
energy can be conserved if an animal can go into a state with deceased activity and metabolism this is called torpor
ex bats are nocturnal and in the daytime they can into torpor
animals can go into hibernation, long term torpor happens b/c its winter and food has gone scarce
this deactivated state can help them survive and save energy
there is also estivation or summer torpor. the animals metabolism slow down, less activity has there is high temp & scarce water
nutrition in animals
herbivore
, are animals that feed on grass and plants (cows, caterpillars, horses)
have molars for teeth for grinding plants, cows have a special type of bacteria in their stomach that allows them to breakdown grass
have longer alimentary canals that gives more time for more digestion b/c of plant
animals that eat grass have mutualistic bacteria & protists in fermentation chambers in the alimentary canal
they can do this b/c the microorganisms have particular enzymes that can digest the cellulose to sugar & other compounds so that the animal can digest
omnivore
, a diet consisting of animals and plants. (humans,bears, crows).
Have teeth consisting of molars and incisors made for chomping and chewing
have longer alimentary canal
carnivore
, diet consists mainly animal. (tigers, spiders, hawks). have incisors for teeth specially for tearing
have a expanded stomach allowing them to be able to eat more
animals need essential nutrients, that includes amino acid, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals
t
he essential nutrients
have key functions such as substrates of enzyme, as co-enzyme and as cofactors in bio- synthetic reactions
* amino acids
, 20 amino acids are need to make proteins in animals.
animals have enzymes synthesizing amino acid, and they get the rest from food called essential amino acid.
the proteins in animal products can provide all essential amino acid
* fatty acids
in animals synthesize phospholipid, signaling molecules, and storing fat.
but animals lack enzymes that are needed to form double bonds that are found in fatty acids, so instead they are gained through diet & are called essential fatty acids
* vitamins,
organic molecules needed in small amounts.
vitamins are water soluble or fat-soluble
vitamin B, act as a co-enzyme, vitamin C needed for connective tissue production, Vitamin A (fat soluble), is absorbed into visual pigments in the eye.
Vitamin D (fat soluble), helps in calcium absorption and bone formation
* minerals
, inorganic that include iron & sulfur that are only needed in small amounts
in animals vitamins are assembled into proteins, so iron is incorporated into hemoglobin & some enzymes
another ex: sodium potassium & chloride are used to function the nerve & muscle, & maintain osmotic balance
vertebrates the mineral iodine is used in thyroid hormone, that regulates metabolic rate. they also need calcium & phosphorus for building & maintaining bone
not enough nutrients can result in malnutrition, not enough intake can cause deformities, disease & death
in humans a diet that doesn't have enough or too much can lead to protein deficiency
food processing
1)
ingestion
, act of feeding or eating
2)
digestion,
where the food is broken down into small molecules that can be adsorbed
digestion includes mechanical digestion the chewing motion comes before chemical digestion
mechanical breaks food small pieces that allows a bugger surface area for chemical processes
chemical occurs in animals n/c they cant digest proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats and phospholipids
3)
absorption,
uptake of small molecules like amino acids and simple sugars
4)
elimination
, the undigested material passes out of the digestive system
digestive compartments
an animal avoids self digestion b/c the processing of food within intracellular or extracellular compartments
mechanism for animal feeding
filter feeding, straining small organisms or food from surrounding medium ex: whales have a baleen that removes vertebrates & fish from volumes of water
bulk feeding, animals & humans eat a large amount of food. so animals with pincers, claws, jaws, teeth to be able to kill prey
substrate feeding, animals living in or on the food source ex: maggots digging into carcasses, & caterpillars
fluid feeding, suck nutrients from their host. they can be beneficial and non-beneficial ex: beneficial birds and flowers, non-beneficial a mosquito and its host
Intracelluar digestion
A food vacuole is the simplest digestive compartment, in intracellular digestion happens after food is engulfed by phagocytosis(solid) or pinocytosis(liquid).
The food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes, bringing food in contact with enzymes so digestion can occur safely in a compartment that is protected by a membrane (sponges)
Extra-celllular digestion
This digestion breaks down food in compartments that are continuous with outside of the animals body
animals that have a few extra cellular compartments are able to eat larger pieces of food hat are invested by phagocytosis
A simple body plan have a gastrovascular cavity deals with digestion and distributing nutrients ( hydra, cnidarians) (flatworms)
Most animals have a complete digestive tract, the alimentary canal b/c food goes along the canal in one direction. The canal has compartments to carry out digestion & nutrient absorption
Food processing stages for mammalian system
In mammals they have an alimentary canal & glands that aid is secrete juices into the canal through ducts
There digestive sysstme includes three glands, three pairs of saivarybglands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder
So in the canal food is pushed by peristalasis that are contracting and relaxing, then a sphincter closes the canal off as the regulate the passage of material
First the
oral cavity
is where ingestion and digestion occur in the mouth. This is also where mechanical digestion begins
Then the salivary glands deliver
saliva
to the mouth, the saliva triggers chemical digestion and also protecting the oral cavity.
amylase
is an enzyme that is in saliva that hydrolyzes starch & glycogen into small polysaccharides and disaccharide maltose
saliva has a protective effect, provided by
mucus
which has salt, water, cells and glycoproteins. the mucus protects the lining of the mouth from tears and it also lubricates food
the tongue only lets food that should be processed pass through, when chewing the tongue and its movements mix saliva & food into a bolus
when swallowed the tongue pushes food into the back of the oral cavity into the pharynx
the pharynx (throat region), open up to the trachea leads to lungs and esophagus leads to stomach.
digestion in the stomach
the
stomach
is below the diaphragm, it stores the food & digestion of proteins
it also secretes juices called the gastric juice and mixes with food through a churning action. this mixture is called is
chyme
chemical digestion in the stomach
chemical is carried out by HCl, disrupting the extracellular matrix of meat and plant. Has a pH of 2, and denatures proteins in food exposing peptide bonds
when they are exposed they are attacked by the second gastric juice called protease a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin
digestion in small intestine
hydrolysis of macromolecules from the food in the small intestine
small intestine is the longest but small in diameter, the first 25cm of the intestine is called the duodenum
the duodenum is where the chyme mixes with the digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, & gallbladder.
pancreas
helps in chemical digestion producing alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate & enzymes.
it contains trypsin & chymotrypsin proteases secreted into the duodenum inactivity
fat and lipid digestion begin in the small intestine & relies on bile production that is made in the
liver
.
bile has salts that emulsify to aid in digestion & absorption of lipids. bile is stored/concentrated in gallbladder
bile also destroys red blood cells that don't function, liver also incorporates pigments that are by products of red blood cell disassembly
absorption in small intestine
villi are where most absorption happen, they are the large folds the linning of the encircle of the intestine
the epithelial cell of villus has microvilli on the apical surface that are exposed to intestinal lumen
the surface area of the villi & microvilli is large and increases nutrient absorption
capillaries & veins carry nutrient rich blood away from villi converge into
hepatic portal vein
which is a blood vessel leads to liver
from the liver the blood travel to the heart and other tissue & organs
with this the liver regulates nutrient distribution to the body, the liver can interconvert molecules, blood leaving the liver is different from the blood that enters
this arrangement also lets the liver detoxifies toxic substances before it goes to the body
fat production go a different route out of small intestine
the hydrolysis of fats by lipase generate into fatty acids & monoglycerides
they are absorbed by epithelial and combined into triglycerides, & coated with phosholipids, cholesterol, & proteins which form chylomicrons
chylomicrons, are transported epithelial cell of the intestine into a lacteal which is the villus core
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the small intestine recoveries water
processing in the large intestine
large intestine starts when the alimentary canal ends, which has the colon, cecum and rectum
the colon leads to rectum & anus
the cecum, a pouch that used to ferment ingested material, cows this allows them to digest grass
the appendix, finger-like extension of the cecum has a small role in immunity
colon completes re-absorption of water that begins in the small intestine, so the feces remain and are solid as they move along the colon by peristalsis
the rectum, the end of the large intestine holds feces before it leaves the body, there are sphincters between rectum & anus (inner being involuntary & outer is voluntary)
feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
insulin is secreted when glucose levels are high, decreasing the glucose concentration
glucagon is secreted when the blood glucose levels are low, so it releases glucose
the liver is is the site for insulin and glucagon
glucagon stimulates the liver allowing the breakdown of glycogen converting the amino acids & glycerol to glucose releasing it to the blood
insulin, takes up the glucose
insulin & glucagon are made in the pancreas, the pancreas has pancreatic islets
the islets have alpha cells for the glucagon and beta cells for insulin.
glucose homeostasis
:
diabetes mellitus
, when theirs a deficiency in insulin production or decreased response to insulin in target cells
type 1 diabetes, insulin-dependent the immune system destroys the the beta cells in the pancreas, treated with insulin injections
type 2 diabetes, non-insulin dependent diabetes is the failure of target cells not responding to insulin, usually can happen with excess body weight and lack of exercise
regulation of appetite and consumption
there are homeostatic mechanisms feedback that controls storage and metabolism of fat
neurons relay info from the digestive system regulating the secretion of appetite
ghrelin
a hormone secreted by the stomach wall triggering hunger, and insulin & PYY hormones secreted after meals suppressing appetite.
leptin
hormone secreted by adipose tissue it suppresses appetite and regulates fat levels
