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Finn and Hocket (Inside the school (The teachers would come early and stay…

- - - - Even though there is a test to get into this school, there is still and overflow of students, so imagine what it must be in regular public school.
        
        Students should not have to take a test to be allowed into a school. There is a huge amount of pressure on the students. It is unfair to make them worry about whether or not they will make it into a school.
- - - - Almost all of the students in this school were taking one more more AP classes.
      - “Nearly every school on our list offers a host of AP courses and has a huge number of students enrolling in them (either by requirement or by choice) and racking up solid scores on the AP exams.” (Finn and Hocket 2012, p14)
- - - - This bothers me because of the way my school was run. We were all expected to pass but a few people decided they did not want to further pursue their education. People began to drop out in our junior year.
    - - From this the students need to have a mindset that is focused on one specific career
  - - - formal postsecondary education programs
        
        • “Formal postsecondary programs include classroom-based programs at public and private four-year colleges and universities, as well as community colleges and vocational schools.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 78)
        
        ”A young student graduates from high school, enrolls in a postsecondary institution such as a university or community college, completes an internship and passes a certification exam during a course of study, and graduates with a postsecondary credential. The student enters the labor market and becomes employed—her employer provides a six-month training regimen that teaches her the career-specific skills she needs to thrive in the workplace.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 76)
      - industry-based certifications,
        
        “Industry-based certifications are test-based credentials that, unlike certificates, associate’s degrees, and bachelor’s degrees, aren’t tied to formal programs of study. They are highly specialized and are typically earned after an individual completes formal postsecondary education, though they do not always require a postsecondary certificate or degree. IBCs are administered and accredited by third-party, […].” Carnevale and Hanson, 2015, Pg. 81
      - internships
        
        • “In the United States, internships refer to entry-level positions that function as an important form of vocational training and pre-employment screening. In theory, interns do not provide any significant level of productivity to their employer; instead, their main role is to learn on the job and gain relevant work experience that will prepare them for occupations in a particular industry or career field.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 82)
      - employer-based training
    - - About 90 percent of undergraduate students are split evenly between associate’s degree and bachelor’s degree programs (42 percent and 46 percent, respectively), while 8 percent enroll in certificate programs
      - Roughly two-thirds of the students currently enrolled in associate’s degree programs in the United States are programs that prepare them to transfer to a four-year college, while one-third are enrolled in programs that are terminal and career-focused.
- - - - B. Sexual Realism and the Limitations of Intermediate Scrutiny Analysis
        
        “Sexual realism has played a pivotal role in cabining the reach of the anti-stereotyping norm as it applies to single-sex public education.” (Williams 2010, p570)
        
        “In rhetorically conceding that gender is a spectrum, proponents of the sex difference approach push back against the idea that a generalization must account for one hundred percent of the cases in order to be valid.” (Williams 2010, p573)
        
        “On the one hand, sexual realism has proven critical in enabling proponents of single-sex education to parry analogies between sex segregation in the present and racially segregationist policies of the past.”(Williams 2010, p571)
        
        “Many commentators remain skeptical of the "facts" of sex difference as reported by leading proponents of single-sex public education.” (Williams 2010, p572)
      - A. Single-Sex Public Education and the Law
        
        “Even in the absence of an explicit constitutional prohibition against sex-segregation in public schools, single-sex K-12 public education was virtually non-existent by the early 1990s.” (Williams 2010, p565)
        
        Many laws tried to desegregate the gender and race of the sex.
        
        “The amended regulations mandate that single-sex educational programs serve at least one of two "important objective[s]": to "improve educational achievement of its students through a[n] overall established policy, to provide diverse educational opportunities," or "to meet the particular, identified needs of its students.”(Williams 2010, p569)
        
        “The appeals court determined that attendance at both the all-male and all-female single-sex schools in Philadelphia was "voluntary" and that the educational opportunities at both schools were "essentially equal.””(Williams 2010, p565)
        
        “Over the course of the twentieth century, most historically sex-segregated schools had integrated.” (Williams 2010, p565)
      - “Experimentation with single-sex education in K-12 pubhc schools remains a risky endeavor, given persistent uncertainty about what kinds of programs and pohcies the law allows.” (Williams 2010, p564)
    - - “Since the mid-1970s, educators have made a virtue of ignoring gender differences. The assumption was that by teaching girls and boys the same subjects in the same way at the same age, gender gaps in achievement would be eradicated. (Leonard Sax)” (Williams 2010, p558)
        
        “In both accounts, feminism is blamed for producing an educational culture that is said to privilege the distinctive needs, aptitudes, and interests of girls over boys under the guise of promoting equality.” (Williams 2010, p558)
      - Putting the science of sex difference into practice
        
        “Proponents of the sex difference paradigm emphasize the critical role that hormones play in brain development, urging educators to "teach to the testosterone" and to resist pathologizing boys for fixed biological endowments.” (Williams 2010, p560)
        
        Different types of teaching must be differentiated between boys and girls for them to fully learn
        
        “A recent news report attributes to Sax the view that "while stress can threaten a girl's ability to leam, it enhances leaming for boys.” (Williams 2010, p560)
        
        It should not matter the gender of the student. Stress does not positively impact one gender over the other.
        
        They are beginning to stereotype kids without even realizing
        
        “The specific concem is that claims about neurobiology are being used to justify educational arrangements in which boys and girls are trained to conform to sex-role stereotypes rather than to challenge them.” (Williams 2010, p561)
        
        “Even the most ardent proponents of single-sex education acknowledge the risk of sex-role stereotyping in single-sex classrooms.” (Williams 2010, p561)
        
        “Boys' classrooms are provided with books about "cars, snakes and dinosaurs," whereas giris' rooms are supplied with "fairy tales and stuffed animals.”(Williams 2010, p563)
    - - B. Intersectionality and the Politics of Difference
        
        Children from poorer backgrounds have educational disadvantages due to the politics that go in to education.
        
        “What has emerged, then, is a bait-and-switch strategy whereby biological sex differences become the scapegoat for the failures of a system that perpetuates injustices emanating from racial and economic inequalities.”(Williams 2010, p579)
        
        “In framing single-sex public education as an intervention meant to serve the needs of disadvantaged children, the debate has also created unlikely antagonists, pitting prominent feminist legal organizations, including Legal Momentum (formerly known as NOW Legal Defense), The Feminist Majority Foundation, and the ACLU's Women's Rights Project against community activists advocating on behalf of poor children of color.”(Williams 2010, p577)
      - A. Leveraging Disadvantage
        
        “Sex-based classifications are prohibited only if they are invoked "to create or perpetuate the legal, social, and economic inferiority of women.”(Williams 2010, p575)
        
        “Whereas equal protection analysis typically considers whether a classification stigmatizes members of excluded classes, in single-sex education cases it may be necessary to flip the analysis and ask whether the excluded group is being falsely positioned as advantaged.”(Williams 2010, p576)
        
        I do not believe this is the way a school should be run. People should not judge based on sex.
        
        “Some advocates have pointed to studies which suggest that singlesex education may produce its most significant results with children from low-income and minority backgrounds.”(Williams 2010, p574)
        
        “Even with the popularization of a biological rhetoric of sex differences— differences proclaimed to exist regardless of race, class, and even sexuality—the debate over single-sex public education continues to center around narratives of racial and economic disadvantage.” (Williams 2010, p574)
        
        “Is there really a "boy crisis" or rather a public education crisis with a disproportionate impact in poor communities and communities of color?” (Williams 2010, p576)
- - - - definition: freedom from general school regulation
    - - 1&2
        
        Ideology & flexibility 2.ideology & accountability
      - 3 & 4
        
        Partisanship & flexibility 4. partisanship & accountability
      - 5&6
        
        Democratic & flexibility 6. Democratic & accountability
      - 7 & 8
        
        Flexibility & number of charters 8. accountability & number of charters
    - - Definition: financial and other support for charters in state law
  - - - "Moreover, they 'are expected to improve the education system by providing competition for regular public schools [and a] model for public schools to emulate'." (Ford, 2005, 23)
    - - Analysis of short term results
- - - - “This study analyzed how a private, religious school teaches character—an issue in character education that previously had little in-depth research. The purpose of this study was to describe how the concurrent curricula (including the written curriculum, taught curriculum, and school culture) at a Jewish day school teach character to its students.” (Roso, 2013. P. 31)
    - - “Research literature suggests that core ethical values should be the basis of good character (Lickona, Schaps, & Lewis, n.d.). Literature also indicates that a major source of these core ethical values is religion (Colson, 1995; Glanzer, 1999; Haynes & Thomas, 1998).” (Roso, 2019, pg 33)
  - - - “Between 1941 and 1960, non-public-school enrollment, driven by Catholic schools, grew by 117%. When it reached its zenith in the mid-1960s, the nation’s Catholic K-12 education system maintained more than 13,000 schools serving more than 5 million children— approximately 12% of all American students.” (Smarick,117)
      - “In 1606, in what is now St. Augustine, Florida, the Franciscan Order founded the first Catholic school on what would eventually become American shores, in order “to teach children Christian doctrine, reading, and writing.” (Smarick, 2019, pg 114)
      - “Church leaders and concerned families received a major boost in 1925, with the landmark Supreme Court decision Pierce v. Society of Sisters. In that case, the Court declared state requirements that students attend public schools to be unconstitutional, and provided broad protection to private education. The opinion thus cleared the way for Catholics to build their own system of schools, free from much of the government interference and obstruction they had theretofore endured.” (Smarick,117)
      - “And at the federal level, former speaker of the House James G. Blaine introduced a constitutional amendment in 1875 that would have strictly forbidden any government funding of schools run by “any religious sect.” The Maine congressman’s proposal passed overwhelmingly in the House—by a vote of 180 to seven—but was defeated narrowly in the Senate. Within 15 years, however, 29 states had “Blaine Amendments” in their own constitutions” (Smarick,116)
    - - “But the decline of Catholic schools affects much for more information. more than one faith community. And some of those who should be most concerned have a thoroughly secular purpose: education reformers struggling to narrow the divide in academic achievement between wealthy students and poor students, and especially between white children and minorities in urban schools.” (Smarick, 2011, p.120-121)
    - - “Much of the unease about government support for faith-based schools is rooted in the concern that their highest priority is religious proselytization. What has failed to permeate the debate, however, is that while Catholic schools originally developed to serve and protect Catholic children and to advance the faith, many inner-city Catholic schools now serve predominantly non-Catholic, poor, minority students.” (Smarick, 2011, p.125)
        
        Students priorities should be focused on schools during school hours. This is part of the reason why the states separated Church and State.
    - - “One downside, however, was the further undermining of urban Catholic education. Even though Catholic schools set their tuition rates well below per-pupil costs (to remain accessible), a few thousand dollars a year was still prohibitively expensive for many inner-city families. Offered new, presumably safe, and tuition-free charter schools in their neighborhoods, many urban parents decided to forego the expense of Catholic schools. In the 1990s, almost 600 more schools were closed.” (Smarick,120)
      - “Throughout the 1980s, many of America’s cities continued to hemorrhage population and wealth, and the number of Catholic schools continued to fall. Nearly 1,000 more schools were lost, and enrollment declined by more than half a million” (Smarick,119)
      - “When these more recent figures are added to those of the past several decades, they paint a shocking portrait of decline. In 50 years, the number of Catholic schools has dropped by nearly 5,800, more than all the elementary public schools operating in the state of California. In the same period, Catholic schools lost more than 3 million students. Where Catholic schools once dominated the private-school sector, claiming nearly 90% of the market, they now represent only one in five nonpublic schools. And of those Catholic schools that remain, only one out of every eight is located in an inner city.” (Smarick,120)
      - “Massive demographic shifts also played a part. With more resources at their disposal than their parents or grandparents had, blue-collar, middle-class families—often Catholic—were able to leave the cities for homes in America’s growing suburbs. Since many of these parents chose public schools for their children, the number of new suburban Catholic schools fell far short of the number of urban Catholic schools emptied by the exodus.” (Smarick,118)