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Learning (Types of Learning: (Discrimination learning: Learning to…
Learning
Types of Learning:
- Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
- Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
- Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation.
- Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
- Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak - the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities.
- Attitude learning:Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
- Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
Theories of Learning:
Trial and Error Learning Theory: This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike. He argues that learning takes place through trial and error method.
According to this theory when an individual is placed in a new situation, he makes a number of random movements. Among them, those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the successful ones are fixed.
Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number of experiments on cats-using a box which he called ‘puzzle box’. In one of the experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box and the door was closed which could be opened by pressing a Latch. A fish was placed outside the box in a plate.
However, this method involves considerable waste of time and effort.
EL Thorndike has explained three laws of learning called Primary laws and in addition to these, he has also framed 5 subsidiary laws in connection with his trial and error learning theory.
Primary laws:
- Law of readiness: By readiness means the organism is ready to respond or act.This is more essential prerequisite for learning.
This indicates that the animal or human being is motivated to learn. This condition of readiness has two effects— satisfaction and annoyance. When the animal is ready to act- if permitted- it gives pleasure. If it is not permitted, it feels annoyed.
- Law of exercise: This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to number of repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated exercising of a response strengthens its connection with stimulus.
- Law of effect: This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying effect- its strength is increased.
Rewards always strengthen connections between stimuli and responses, and on the other hand, punishment weakens connections.
Secondary laws: a. Law of multiple response: It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the learner will try with new responses until the goal is reached. b. Law of set or attitude: Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning. c. Law of associative shifting: if a response can be kept intact through a series of changes in stimulating situation, it may finally be given to a new situation. d. Law of prepotency of elements: This law states that the learner is able to react in a selected way, only to the salient elements of the problem and not for other unimportant elements. e. Law of response by analogy:It means comparing a new situation to the previously learned one and thus giving a response by analogy.
Learning by Conditioning: In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a new situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of substituting the original stimulus by a new one and connecting the response with it. There are two types of conditioning theories:
- Operant Conditioning: This method of conditioning was developed by an American psychologist BF Skinner. This theory is also known as ‘Instrumental conditioning’, because the animals use certain operations or actions as instruments to find solution.Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry rat in a box called after his name ‘Skinner box’. This box was containing a lever and a food tray in a corner of the box. It was so arranged, that the animal was free to move inside the box, but the pressing of the lever would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray as reinforcement.Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of this experiment is divided into two types: positive reinforcement is used in reward training. Negative reinforcement-like punishment is used to stop undesired responses or behaviours.
- Classical conditioning: Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva produced in response to food (meat power).
This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing with UCS (food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is because the association (conditioning) is formed between CS and UCS.
Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:
b. Stimulus generalization: A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one is called stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity, the more the generalization. In this experiment, the dog started salivating even for the sound of a buzzer which was similar to bell.
c. Stimulus discrimination: When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can discriminate between the two. For example, if the dog is conditioned to salivate at the signal of red light, it will not salivate when green light is presented.
a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery: The strength of the CS gradually decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by UCS for a number of trails. This process is called ‘extinction’.
But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some trials, the CR (salivation) recovered. This is known as ‘spontaneous recovery’. In spontaneous recovery the dog required less number of trials than the first time, because the association between CS and UCS still existed in the brain of the animal.
d. Higher order conditioning: If a ‘light’ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a number of trials, the dog will start salivating to light itself. This phenomenon is called higher order condition.
Learning by Insight: Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and understanding the situation is insightful learning. This theory was developed by a psychologist known as Wolf gang Kohler, who belonged to Gestalt school of psychology. Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on chimpanzee- called Sultan.He concluded that the occurrence of insight to find solution to a problem is possible by perception of the whole situation.
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Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and experience”.
This definition has three important elements:
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.