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Findings 3 Revision (Career/Tech Schooling (Wonacott (Introduction ( “In…

- - - - "Thus David Snedden, Commissioner of education for Massachusetts, set the context for vocational education as he saw in 1910. A time of great social, economic, industrial, and educational change, stating recounted the demise of institutions like the home, the farm, an apprenticeship added previously prepared individuals for work..."(Wonacott, 2003, p. 5).
    - - “In particular, Dewey contended that education in a democratic society must do away with the dualism of "a liberal education, having to do with the self-sufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its own sake, and a useful, practical training for mechanical occupations, devoid of intellectual and aesthetic content" and instead "construct a course of studies which makes thought a guide of free practice for all and which makes leisure a reward of accepting responsibility for service, rather than a state of exemption from it." (Wonacott, 2003, p. 7)
    - - "Until recent years, Allstate had large and influential program area state supervisors and designated state director for vocational education who had responsibilities for program development, curriculum development, teaching and learning, youth clubs, research, assessment, etc" (Wonacott, 2003, p.12)
    - -  “In the United States, formal vocational education in schools began early in the 20th century with roots in the traditional techniques of preparing young individuals for work, today, vocational education encompasses not only technical preparation but also sound academic foundations, higher-order thinking skills, and personal qualities needed for success in the workplace.” (Wonacott, 2003, p. 3)
      - "The purpose of this paper is not to develop or derive a prescriptive definition of "vocational education" or "career-technical education" for the 21st century or even to trace the changing usage of terminology for the name of the field, rather the purpose is to sketch the evolution of the field from vocational education to career-technical education through the course of a century..." (Wonacott, 2003, p. 2).
    - - Several additional benefits were expected as vocational education became a part of the system of public education. Not only would schools be meaningful for more students, but education for employment would help extend the years of education, thus increasing the level of citizenship of those persons. Vocational education would also make for greater efficiency and production and increase the wage earning of youth-- both boys and girls-- by helping them move from non-educated occupations such as unskilled laborers positions asking workers sought after by industry." (Wyonacott, 2003, p.4)
    - - "The first general theory of vocational education... occasionally education will be efficient in proportion as the environment in which the learners trained as a replica of the environment which he must subsequently work" (Wonacott, 2003, p.9)
    - - "90% of the population were high school dropouts or had never attended high school. Typically, youth left the public school by the age of 14, and less than half of these completed the sixth grade. School attendance laws for the persons older than 14were just beginning to emerge." (Wonacott, 2003, p. 4)
      - “Although the schools were freely open to every child, the aims and purposes of the schools were such that a majority of the children were unable to take advantage of schooling beyond a certain grade, and hence did not secure, at public expense, a preparation for their work in life. The Commission held that the schools were planned for only the few who were preparing for college rather than the large number who would go into industry.” (Wonacott, 2003, p. 4)
        
        Why did these schools cater toward students seeking college even tho they were the minority?
    - - "The beginning of the major federal influences and modeling and shaping secondary in post-secondary vocational education began with the Smith-Hughes act of 1917. This legislation was devised in response to a complex set of social, economic, political forces" (Wonacott, 2003, p.8)
    - -  “At the postsecondary level, in institutions such as technical colleges and community colleges, flexibility must mean curricula that prepare people for a range of jobs, within a job family. Within the construction field for example, graduates could learn not just brick laying, but carpentry and plumbing. They thus become multiskilled. Flexibility at this level also means a curriculum that includes actual work-site internships, and the employment of expert workers as part-time instructors.” (Wonacott, 2003, p. 18)
    - - "The first wave of school reformers were clear that it was academic, not vocational education, that was the antidote to the superiority of Japanese and German manufacturing. If this line of reasoning were allowed to stand, then vocational education's main claim to uniqueness in curriculum would be in jeopardy the vocational list advocates countered by offering a revised rationale that casts the subject area and essentially liberal terms." (Wanocott, 2003, p.13)
    - - "About 75% of all comprehensive high school offer specialized courses in one or more occupational programs, historically identified as agricultural, business office, marketing, health and family consumer sciences- occupational or wage earning, trade in industrial. More recently the federal government has added public and protective services, child care and education, food service and hospitality, technology and communications, and personal and other services to its classification of vocational or occupational program areas. Fewer than 5% of comprehensive high schools offer courses for more than six vocational education programs" (Wanocott, 2003, p. 15)
  - - - Unprepared College Students
        
        “many students ignore CTE programs that might be a better choice for them.” (Cohen, 2004, p. 7)
        
        I believe this statistic because I was one of these students
        
        "The response to the declining rewards of a high school diploma has often been to urge all students to go to college." (Cohen, 2004, p. 4)
        
        "A study by Gray and his colleagues suggests that enrolling in a four-year college may not always be the best course of action for some students. They studied the secondary and postsecondary experiences of all 1991 graduates of seven public high schools in affluent suburban districts. The authors found that on graduation from high school, almost half the students failed to meet what the authors identified as the minimal criteria for being prepared to do college academic work (defined as having a C average, a combined SAT score of 800, and a minimal sequence of college preparatory courses). " (Cohen, 2004,6)
      - The Promise of CTE
        
        CTE is a promising strategy for addressing the difficulties faced by high school dropouts and graduates who seek jobs or attend college without adequate preparation. Through contextual learning and connections with adult mentors, CTE can engage students who otherwise might lose interest in school. By providing linkages to employers and a tryout period for new high school graduates, CTE can enhance the chances of finding good jobs that lead to rewarding careers (Cohen, pg. 13)
        
        This is a very practical solution for the problems related to high school graduation
      - The High School Dropout Problem
        
        "Young people who do not complete high school tend to have substantially lower employment rates and earnings than those who do graduate." (Cohen, 2004, p. 1)
        
        Is this because of credential inflation?
        
        • “Dropout rates are higher in urban areas and among African Americans and Hispanics (Cohen, 2004, p. 2).”
        
        I believe this because I have seen generational poverty in these people groups
      - The Importance of Non-College Careers
        
        Comparing the supply as well as the demand for workers with different types of education and training also suggests an oversupply of college-educated workers and a shortage of those with technical training. (Cohen, 2004,7)
        
        “Of the total job openings between 2000 and 2010, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects that 70 percent will require no postsecondary education.” (Cohen, 2004, p. 7)
      - High School Graduates and the Transition to Work
        
        "High youth unemployment rates reflect the difficulty that non-college youth have in making the transition to the labor force: only 67 percent of recent high school graduates not enrolled in college were employed in October 1997," (Cohen p. 3).
        
        High schools prepare students for gaining credentials in college,not for a job after high school
        
        "Even graduation from high school is no longer sufficient to ensure a career," (Cohen p. 3).
        
        Credential inflation
      - What Employers Really Want
    - - History
        
        CTE, originally known as “vocational education,” or “voc ed,” arose in response to the need for skilled workers in manufacturing industries and the entry of working-class students into high school. But vocational education eventually lost popularity in the United States due to an increased emphasis on academic skills and a belief in college for all, coupled with a perception that vocational education was becoming an educational backwater for the disadvantaged. By contrast, in many European countries, CTE is a respected option that is directly linked to good jobs (Cohen, pg.15)
        
        My mom had vocational school as part of her high school
      - Current Programs
        
        "Most U.S. high schools offer some CTE. One or more courses identified with CTE are offered in 93 percent of the nation's public comprehensive high schools. Nearly all public comprehensive high schools offer general labor market preparation or family and consumer sciences." (Cohen, 2004, p. 22)
        
        93 percent is shocking
      - CTE in Other Countries
      - Public Attitudes
        
        “Guidance counseling practices also contribute to the overemphasis on college. Whereas counselors in the 1960s saw their role as selecting only a limited number of students who should go to college, recent research suggests that they now advise college for almost everyone, steering students away from CTE and blue-collar jobs.” (Cohen, 2004, p.31)
        
        This made me think about the negative effects of everyone gong to college
    - - Findings
      - Limitations of Research Based on National Student Surveys
      - Synthesis
      - CTE Program Evaluations
        
        “CTE is a promising strategy for addressing the difficulties faced by high school dropouts and graduates who seek jobs or attend college without adequate preparation. Through contextual learning and connections with adult mentors, CTE can engage students who otherwise might lose interest in school. By providing linkages to employers and a tryout period for new high school graduates, CTE can enhance the chances of finding good jobs that lead to rewarding careers (Cohen 13)”.
        
        This quote makes perfect sense. It gives the solution and how to fill the need in the education system.
  - - - Enrollment. About 90% of undergraduate students are split evenly between associates degrees and bachelor's degree programs" (Carnavale, 2015, p.79)
    - - "training that often features a curriculum and can last anywhere from a few weeks to two years and informal, on the job training that mostly consists of job shadowing and rarely last longer than a few months and can often be completed in a few days or weeks" (Carnevale, 2015, p.87)
    - - • “There are three major kinds of formal programs of study: post-secondary certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 78)
      - “Formal postsecondary programs include classroom-based programs at public and private four-year colleges and universities, as well as community colleges and vocational schools” (Carnevale & Hanson, 2015, p. 78).
      - I didn't know these existed. I had to research what it meant. They seem to be very beneficial to our education system
    - -  “Many critics of unpaid internships have alluded to the coinciding rise of internships alongside the so-called contingent workforce — which comprises interns, part-time, temporary and contract workers and now constitutes 30 percent of the U.S. workforce — to suggest that internships are an elegant name for unpaid temporary positions.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 84)
      - “College students who completed paid internships enter the labor market with substantially higher rates of receiving job offers and starting salaries than their peers, while there was no difference in the outcomes of students who completed unpaid internships and those who had no internship.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 83)
        
        I think that paid internships reap more reward because they typically require more doing than unpaid internships
    - - "Industry-based certifications are test-based credentials that, unlike certificates, associate's degrees, and bachelor's degrees, aren't tied to formal programs of study. They are highly specialized and are typically earned after an individual completes formal postsecondary education, though they do not always require a postsecondary certificate or degree" (Carnevale, 2015, p.81).
    - - Learn and earn
      - Outcome standard
      - Transparency
      - Data systems
    - -  “In the United States, internships refer to entry-level positions that function as an important form of vocational training and pre-employment screening. In theory, interns do not provide any significant level of productivity to their employer; instead, their main role is to learn on the job and gain relevant work experience that will prepare them for occupations in a particular industry or career field.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 82)
    - - "The strengths of the U.S. education and training system are the decentralization provides institutions the flexibility to innovate and respond to change in the labor market and that, because pathways are not linear of uniform..." (Carnevale, 2015, p. 88).
      - "The weakness of the U.S. system are that, because young adults are not given clear guidance about what comes next, many get lost, change their minds, and find these systems difficult to navigate on their own" (Carnevale, 2015, p.88)
        
        I have personally felt the effects of this system. I have alwas
        
        I have personally felt the effects of this system. I have always known what comes next besides that ever so small gap between high school and college where I rethought going to college. This is the sad reality of most middle to upper class students.
    - - "Employer-based training is the second largest component of education and training spending at $450 billion per year, followed by formal postsecondary programs ($350 billion), and industry-based certifications ($30 billion)" (Carnevale & Hanson, 2015, p. 77).
      - "Altogether, education. and training comprises $1.5 trillion in spending each year, roughly equivalent to 9 percent of the United States' gross domestic product (GDP)" (Carnevale & Hanson, 2015, p. 77).
    - - First, interns are mostly young entry-level workers who are unfamiliar with their rights as workers due to their lack of experience. Second, lawsuits can be prohibitively expensive for current and former interns and yield relatively small benefits. An intern who works over the summer at the minimum wage rate can make as little as $1,000 to $2,000, which many consider not worth the potential monetary costs as well as the risks to one’s public reputation, which could damage the interns’ future career prospects.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 86)
        
        I don't agree with this statement. I think that an internship cannot harm your reputation to other employers
    - - I want to know more about this topic
- - - - “Proponents of single-sex education generally (and the sex difference approach in particular) have benefited from the limited capacity of intermediate scrutiny analysis to challenge sex-role stereotypes.” (Williams, p.573)
        
        this does not make sense. How are advocates benefiting when they receiving negative feedback
      - “At the same time, the logic of intersectionality has been skillfully exploited to divide potential allies and to delegitimize critics of sex-role stereotyping by equating opposition to single sex public education with indifference to the critical lack of educational opportunities available to economically disadvantaged students.” (Williams, p.574)
        
        This makes sense because it explains how same sex schools have been able to overcome accusations.
        
        I believe this because there is evidence to back up the evidence found in this quote
    - - “Since its emergence in the late 1980s, the movement for single-sex public education has placed the needs of disadvantaged children at its rhetorical center.”
        
        I agree with this because I have seen the emphasis on the disadvantaged
      - “while single-sex programs in the past were based on old-fashioned stereotypes concerning the inherent aptitudes and capacities of boys and girls, current single-sex initiatives rest on valid observations about sex-based learning differences” (Williams, p.575)
    - - “feminism is blamed for producing an educational culture that is said to privilege the distinctive needs, aptitudes, and interests of girls over boys under the guise of promoting equality. This, the authors suggest, has produced an epidemic of underachievement among boys.” (Williams, p. 558,559)
        
        I agree with this. Degrees obtained by males is decreasing while degrees obtained by women is increasing. Men no longer feel the need to provide or do well in school if a female can do their job better.
    - - “In foregrounding the discourse of biological sex differences as the guiding principle for education reform, however, the movement for single-sex public education has evoked vehement opposition.” (Williams, p.561)
        
        I saw this opposition in my divvy group members. I think that same sex schools are beneficial but they made it clear that they do not agree with this type of schooling.
    - - “To satisfy the demands of equal protection analysis, a sex-based classification must be "substantially related to achievement of [important governmental] objectives." The Court has consistently emphasized that "archaic and overbroad generalizations" about the inherent nature, talents, capacities, or appropriate social roles of the sexes will not be tolerated.” (Williams, p.567)
        
        This quote really made me think about my own views on this subject. Although I agree with this statement, where is the line drawn as to what is a stereotype and what is true?
      - “The prevailing juridical conception of stereotyping centers upon the connection between generalizing and discrimination. The basic idea is that when overbroad generalizations are made, individuals who fall outside the classification are denied opportunities.” (Williams, p.567)
    - - "Sex segregation was introduced in public schools in the late 1980s in the context of more comprehensive reform measures" (p.556)
    - - “Advocates for single-sex public education today seek not just to comply with the anti-stereotyping norm, but to re-conceptualize it.” (Williams, p.572)
        
        4.This is a promising quote. It really made me think about the positives and negatives of same sex schools and how they can be utilized in the 1st century without stereotyping.
    - - “the single-sex public education movement continues to be stymied by lingering ambiguity concerning the scope and reach of constitutional equal protection analysis as it applies to K-12 public schools.” (Williams, p.564)
        
        There will always be opposition to same sex schools because of feminism and people's preconceived ideas or past views of how horrible same sex schools can be.
      - "In Part II, I consider why existing constitutional and statutory prohibitions on sex-role stereotyping have not proven more effective in limiting public education programs that promote gender essentialism.” (Williams, p.564)
    - - “This article has considered how proponents of the sex difference approach have negotiated anti-stereotyping norms, highlighting the use of scientific rhetoric to affirm the reality of sex differences. At the same time, discourses of racial and economic disadvantage have been mustered to undermine potential coalitions between anti-racist and feminist activists. In formulating a response, the anti-stereotyping principle cannot simply be reiterated, but it also must be reconceived to address the social construction of sex. Resistance to the biologization of masculinity must be formulated in the context of an awareness of the political mobilization of identities articulated through multiple modes of subordination” (Williams, p.579)
    - - “biological sex differences become the scapegoat for the failures of a system that perpetuates injustices emanating from racial and economic inequalities.” (Williams, p.579)
        
        I am not sure if I agree with this statement, partially because I do not fully understand it, but also because I do not think biological sex differences are rarely blamed in this circumstance
- - - - “One possible interpretation of the expansiveness of athletic, artistic, and extracurricular opportunities in elite boarding schools is that the schools assume the role of providing what Lareau (2003) calls ‘concerted cultivation,’ which characterizes middle- and upper-class parenting in the United States.” (1113)
- - - - 4.This statement has made me think differently about boarding schools. Perhaps they are still a mystery to modern education.
- - - - I agree with this quote

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