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Chapters 40-41 (Animal Nutrition (Food Processing = Ingestion, Digestion,…

- - - - the two molecules animals need most are organic carbon and organic nitrogen
    - - essential nutrients = substances that animals need but can't make themselves
        
        essential amino acids = amino acids obtained from food
        
        all animals need 20 amino acids to function
        
        humans need to have 8 of them from their diet
        
        proteins from plants are incomplete proteins and proteins from other animals are complete proteins
        
        essential fatty acids = fatty acids obtained from food
        
        needed to create membranes, signaling molecules, and storage fats
        
        includes linoleic acid in mammals
        
        comes from seeds, grains, and vegtables
        
        vitamins = organic molecules required in very small amounts
        
        humans need 13 vitamins
        
        there are water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins
        
        minerals = inorganic nutrients required in small amounts
        
        vertebrates usually need a lot of calcium and phosphorus
    - - Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients
        
        causes deformation, disease, and in some cases, death
      - Undernourishment
        
        first the body uses carbs and fat, the it uses its own proteins
        
        can be caused by drought, war, eating disorders and other crises
    - - it's hard to determine what people need because of diversity
  - - - Mechanical digestion = breaks down food into smaller pieces
      - chemical digestion = breaks apart molecules
        
        allows nutrients to be absorbed by cells
      - fats and proteins are broken down by the addition of water (Enzymatic Hydrolysis)
    - - Intracellular Digestion
        
        Food vacuoles are the simpliest food digestion centers in the cell
        
        this is the only way sponges can digest food
      - Extracellular Digestion
        
        allows the animal to absorb larger pieces of food
        
        gastrovascular cavity = simple pouch for digesting food
        
        animals with a more complex body plan commonly have a two-opening digestive system, alimentary canal
  - - - carnivores have sharps, pointy teeth for tearing
      - herbivores have more flat teeth for grinding
      - Omnivores have a mixture of both
    - - Carnivores have expandable stomachs
      - herbivores have longer alimentary canals
    - - many microorganisms live in the guts of animals (our microbiome)
        
        plays a role in our digestive health, brain function, and mood
      - especially important in herbivores for digesting cellulose
  - - - oral cavity
        
        teeth grind food
        
        facilitates swallowing
        
        anticipation of food causes the salivary glands to release saliva
        
        saliva is made partially of mucus, which makes food easier to swallow
        
        saliva also contains buffers to prevent tooth decay
        
        saliva contains amylase, which breaks down carbs
        
        the tongue decides what foods are acceptable
        
        once it's deemed acceptable, a bolus (a ball of food and saliva) is formed and then swallowed
        
        The Pharynx receives boluses
        
        leads to two passages (trachea and esophagus)
        
        you have to be careful of which "pipe" you send food down
      - Esophagus
        
        Peristalsis pushes food down
        
        Sphincter regulates passage of food to the stomach
    - - two roles
        
        storage
        
        process food into liquid
      - releases gastric juice
        
        food + gastric juice = chyme
        
        produced by parietal cells and chief cells
      - Chemical Digestion
        
        two components to gastric juice
        
        HCl
        
        Protease (pepsin)
        
        mucus prevents self-digestion
    - - Digestion
        
        most enzymatic hydrolysis occurs here
        
        longest part of the digestive system
        
        Duodenum forms the first 10 inches or so
        
        this is where chyme mixes with liquids from the pancreas, liver and gallbladder
        
        pancreas secretes bicarbonate (neutralizes acidity of chyme), trypsin, and chymotrypsin
        
        bile digests fats and is created in the liver and stored in the gallbladder
      - Absorption
        
        occurs in the walls of the intestine
        
        Villi and microvilli do the absorbing
        
        nutrient rich blood travels to Hepatic Portal Vein
        
        hepatic portal vein to liver for nutrient distribution regulation and detoxifying
        
        then to the heart and other tissues and organs
    - - includes the colon, cecum, and rectum
        
        cecum ferments digested materials
        
        rectum is the very last part of the colon
      - water is reabsorbed here
  - - - the digestive system in many animals is not totally active all the time, so, it's triggered by movement of food from compartment to compartment and hormones
    - - liver and muscle cells are storage areas for excess energy
      - glucose homeostasis
        
        normal concentration range in blood is 70-100 mg/ 100ml
        
        maintained by insulin and glucagon
        
        both are provided by the pancreas
      - Diabetes Mellitus
        
        caused by either a lack of insulin or a decreased response to it
        
        Type 1 is the lack of insulin
        
        Type 2 is the decreased response to it
    - - consuming more than we need leads to obesity
      - hormones control appetite
        
        Ghrelin causes hunger
        
        Insulin, PYY, and Leptin decrease appetite
- - - - limited by...
        
        strength
        
        bone strength limits size
        
        diffusion
        
        movement
        
        heat exchange
    - - all animals must exchange...
        
        nutrients
        
        waste porducts
        
        gases
      - all cells must have access to a aqueous environment
      - most exchange surfaces lie within the body
      - interstitial fluid= fluid between cells
      - a complex body plan is advantageous because an organism can keep the internal environment stable despite the external environment
    - - cells are organized into tissues
        
        tissues are then organized into organs
        
        after that, the organ system
      - 4 types of tissues
        
        epithelial
        
        Cuboidal
        
        Simple Columnar
        
        Simple Squamous
        
        Pseudostratified Columnar
        
        Stratified Squamous
        
        connective
        
        loose connective
        
        fibourous
        
        bone
        
        blood
        
        adipose
        
        cartilage
        
        muscle
        
        skeletal
        
        smooth
        
        cardiac
        
        nervous
        
        neurons
        
        gila
    - - 2 major systems
        
        endocrine
        
        hormones = signals
        
        long lasting
        
        nervous
        
        nerve impulses = signals
        
        leaves just as quickly as it comes
  - - - regulation = maintains a consistent internal temperature despite the external environment
      - conform = internal temperature changes with the environment
    - - organism must maintain a consistent internal state to achieve homeostasis
      - mechanisms of homeostasis
        
        set points at whicgh certain functions are maintained
        
        temperature for example has a certain set point in most animals
        
        a stimulus is detected by a sensor that trigger the body to make an effort to get back to homeostasis
        
        once the sensor detects a signal, a control center sends a response
      - feedback controls
        
        negative feedback dampens the stimulus
        
        positive feedback amplifies the stimulus
      - alterations in homeostasis
        
        circadian rhythms = cycles that reoccur every 24 hours
        
        acclimatization =adjustment to changes in the external environment
  - - - endothermic = heat generated by metabolism
      - ectothermic = heat is gained by external sources
        
        don't need quite so much food
    - - Poikilotherm = has a variable body temperature
      - Homeotherm = constant body temperature
    - - 4 processes of heat exchange
        
        radiation
        
        evaporation
        
        convection
        
        conduction
      - uses the integumentary system
    - - reduces heat flow between the internal structures and the environment for mammals
      - formed by hair, feathers, skin, and adipose tissues
      - sometimes secretes water repellent
      - circulatory adaptations
        
        circulatory system = major route of heat flow
        
        birds and mammals use countercurrent exchange to reduce heat loss
      - cooling by evaporation heat loss
        
        sweat glands
        
        panting
      - Behavioral Responses
        
        when cold, animals will commonly bask in the sun
        
        when hot, animals will bathe or move to the shade
        
        huddling also work when cold
      - adjusting metabolic heat production
        
        shivering
        
        non shivering thermogenesis = mitochondria increase metabolic activity
        
        brown fat = fat with extra mitochondria for rapid heat production
  - - - organisms are classified by how the get energy
        
        autotrophs use light to get energy
        
        heterotrophs use chemical energy from food to get energy
      - animals use enzymatic hydrolysis to digest nutrients
        
        body cells the use the nutrients
        
        ATP is produced from the nutrients
    - - metabolic rate = all of the energy an animal uses in a certain time period
        
        measures of energy
        
        calories
        
        kilocalories
        
        joules
        
        can be measured by measuring an animal's heat loss
    - - BMR is the min metabolic rate for endotherms at rest and a comfortable temperature
      - SMR is the min metabolic rate for ectotherms at rest and a comfortable temperature
    - - size
        
        the larger you are, the more energy you need
      - activity
        
        the more active you are, the more energy you require
    - - torpor = a state of decreased metabolic activity
        
        hibernation is just long-term torpor