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Animal Form & Function (ORGAN SYSTEMS (Digestive System (Main…

- - - - Amino Acids to build proteins
      - Fatty Acids to build phospholipids, signaling molecules to store fats
      - Sugars = source of Energy
      - Carbohydrates = source of Energy
      - Vitamins & Minerals = supplements you with nutrients not attained through food
  - - - Nucleic Acids [DNA and RNA]
      - Proteins
      - Carbohydrates
      - Lipids
    - - Carbohydrates = monosaccharides
      - Lipids = glycerol and fatty acids
      - Nucleic Acids = Nucleotides
      - Proteins = Amino Acids and Nucleotides
    - - Lipids
      - Carbs
      - Proteins (as last resort)
    - - [substances that an animal/human requires but cannot assemble from simple organic molecules]
        
        essential amino acids
        
        essential fatty acids
        
        Vitamins and Minerals
  - - - Vitamins = are ORGANIC (contain carbon) molecules that are required in the diet in very small amounts
      - Minerals = are INORGANIC nutrients, such as iron and sulfur, that are usually required in small amounts
      - Minerals = small amounts as well (1mg to about 2500mg per day)
      - Vitamins = very small amounts (0.01-100mg per day) depending on the vitamin
      - [13 Vitamins required by humans]
    - - Moderate overdoses of water-soluble vitamins = mostly harmless because secreted through urine
      - Excess fat-soluble vitamins are deposited in body fat = so overconsumption may cause them to accumulate to toxic levels
      - Fail to recieve enough vitamins and minerals that are needed, can lead to malnutrition
      - Insufficient take of essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease, n even death.
      - Too little can also harm our metabolism, since enzymes usually require a mineral or vitamin component
      - If malnutrition were to occur n diet fails to provide enough chemical energy to body, body will first use up stored up carbs and fats and then proteins as last resort
  - - - Ingestion - act of eating or feeding
      - Mechanical Digestion - food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
      - Chemical Digestion - enabling organisms to extract the molecules needed from the smaller components of the larger molecules through (Hydrolysis)
      - (Hydrolosis)- breaking down covalent bonds by the addition of water
      - Absorption, take up or absorb small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars
      - Elimination, getting rid of undigested material through the digestive system
    - - process in which hydrolytic enzymes break down food within food vacuoles.
    - - The break down of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal’s body. Having one or more extracellular compartments for digestion enables an animal to devour much larger pieces of food that can be ingested by phagocytosis.
      - Extracellular Digestion and the distribution of nutrients through the body occurs in a “pouch” called a Gastrovascular Cavity— ((ANIMALS W/ SIMPLE BODY PLANS))
    - - Urine gets rid of the waste from blood & body fluids/substances your body negates or doesn’t want, important because it tells you a-lot.
      - Feces gets rid of unabsorbed materials or what isn’t digested.
    - - Mechanical Ingestion occurs in ther mouth, chewing
      - Chemical digestion occurs in small intestine, stomach, and oral cavity
      - Absorption occurs in the small intestine
  - - - Pancreas- secrete bicarbonate to neutralize chyme and produces amylase enzymes
      - Liver & Gallbladder: are all Individual Glands that secrete digestive juices, working as a cohesive unit to support food processing.
      - Small Intestine— most chemical digestion occur, most chemical absorption occurs
      - Large Intestine— host most bacteria, that will break down what couldn’t be broken down in the small intestine, this bacteria help produce certain vitamins we benefit from and absorb water
      - Rectum— excrement is stored to ultimately be eliminated through anus
      - Bile = makes fats soluble (dissolve in water)
      - (Protein digestion happens in stomach)
      - Carbohydrate digestion happens in mouth
      - Liver detoxifies the blood that goes through it produces bile which go to either gallbladder or straight into small intestine — gallbladder just stores it
      - Hempatic Portal Vein — blood vessel or hepatic portal vein transfers blood which carries nutrients and stuff straight to liver so it can be detoxified and then its sent out to circulation portal between small intestine and liver
      - Liver produces bile; bile salts are a major component in bile and help digest fat and lipid globules as the as emulsifiers
  - - - Two major functions for stomach; storage and to process food (liquify) food
      - Digestive function; secretes gastric juices — parietal cells (use ATP driven pump to expel hydrogen ions and chord ions are diffuse into the lament through membrane channels of parietal cells, Once in the lumen they form hydrochloric acid The ACID PART
      - Chief Cell — releases pepsin in a inactive form into the lumen called pepsinogen — destroys proteins so its inactive so that it won’t affect organs before its activated once it contacts the acidity —pepsinogen becomes active (pepsin) when HCL clips of a portion of the molecule exposing its active site, making gastric juices
      - Duodenum — first 25cm of small intestine (most chemical digestion occurs)
      - "When chyme of stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder to digest food chemically
        Chyme arriving into the duodenum triggers release of hormone secretion which stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate — which neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer for chemical digestion in the small intestine"
  - - - Colon (large intestine) completes the recovery of water
      - not enough water or absorption= diarrhea
      - absorbed too much = constipation
      - Having no colon = more prone to dehydration and also wouldn’t be able to get the vitamins received by the bacteria found in the colon
    - - Cecum is the pouch used to ferment ingested material
      - appendix, extension of the cecum
      - thought to be a reservoir for symbiotic microorganism (bacteria)
  - - - What is meant by mutualistic adaptations is how coexistence between two organisms can lead to interactions between both, ultimately benefiting both.
      - EX: humans & many intestinal bacteria is an example of mutualism — some intestinal bacteria produce vitamins, such as vitamin K, biotin, and folic acid, that supplement our dietary intake when absorbed into the blood.
      - Intestinal bacteria also regulates the development of the intestinal epithelium and the function of the innate immune system, while benefiting of a steady supply of nutrients and stable host environment
    - - The microbiome, is the collection of microorganisms living in and on the body, along with their genetic material.
      - It’s been noted that they have found over 400 bacterial species in the human digestive tract, a far greater number than had been identified previously
      - The microbiome of a persons digestive system has more than 100 times as many genes as there are in one of his or her body cells. (Humans have about 37.2 trillion in cells)
      - There is evidence that show that changes in the microbiome (bacteria matter) can play a role in obesity, nutritional deficiencies, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory diseases of the digestive system —there are even effects on brain function and mood.
  - - - Secretin, is a hormone secreted from small intestine epithelial cells; stimulates secretion of a bicarbonate rich-fluids from the pancreas and liver,
      - Gastrin, is a hormone that is released when food arrives at the stomach stretching the stomach walls. It circulates via the bloodstream back to the stomach, where it stimulates production of gastric juices.
      - Both, Cholecystokinin and Secretin are digestive hormones that are released when “Chyme” (an acidic mixture of partially digested food) passes into the duodenum. Cholecystokinin, stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and of bile from the gallbladder. Secretin, stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate, which neutralizes chyme.
    - - First Step — Food arrives stomach — release of hormone gastrin — stimulates production of gastric juices in stomach
      - Second Step — Chyme(acidic mixture wit partially digestive food passes from stomach to duodenum — release off digestive hormones cholecystokinin and secretin — both contribute to the break down of food
      - Third Step — If Chyme is rich in fats — both secretin and cholecystokinin inhibit peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices — thereby slowing down digestion
  - - - Differences between type 1 and type 2
        
        People with type 1 diabetes don’t produce insulin— People with type 2 diabetes dont respond to insulin as well as they should and later in the disease often don’t make enough insulin
      - Ghrelin/Leptin/PYY
        
        Ghrelin: is produce and released mainly by the stomach, small amounts also released by small intestine, pancreas, and brain.
        
        Ghrelin: has numerous functions, it is termed the “hunger hormone” because it stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and promotes fat storage. It also stimulates the release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland, has protective effects on the cardiovascular system, and plays a role in the control of insulin release.
        
        Leptin: is a hormone secreted from fat cells that helps to regulate body weight
        
        Leptin: functions as a hormone that regulates body weight. Its main role is long-term regulation of energy, including the number of calories you eat and expend, as well as how much you store in your body. This is accomplished by Leptin signaling to the brain that you’ve had enough fat stored — you don’t need to eat and can burn calories at a normal rate.
        
        PYY: Is a 36 amino acid peptide that is released from L-cells in the ileum (final section of the small intestine) and the colon in response to feeding.
        
        PYY: released after eating, circulates in the blood and works by binding to receptors in the brain. Binding of peptide YY to brain receptors decreases appetite and makes people full after eating. It also acts in the stomach and intestine to slow down the movement of food through the digestive tract.