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Wonacott (“Fewer than 10 percent of the 17-year-olds received a high…
Wonacott
“Fewer than 10 percent of the 17-year-olds received a high school diploma. By modern standards, 90 percent of the population were high school drop outs or had never attended high school. Typically, youth left the public schools by the age of fourteen, and less than half of these completed the sixth grade. School attendance laws for persons older than fourteen were just beginning to emerge.” (Wonacott, 2003, P.4)
Finn (Divvy)
Who goes there
Fewer than half of the people who take the exam are accepted.
"Respondents also noted changes in the composition of their applicant pools, mainly increases in the number who are female, Asian, or Hispanic. Several schools reported a decrease in the number of white applicants in recent years." Finn p 10
What are Exam Schools
"These are some of the highest-achieving high schools in the United States. In contrast to elite boarding and day schools such as Andover and Sidwell Friends, however, they are public." (Finn, 2012, p. 9)
Selective public schools
“Nearly two-thirds of those surveyed accept fewer than half of their applicants.” (Finn & Hockett, 2012, p. 9)
Government and Finances
Majority of their money was from fundraising and alumni and parents
“Most, for example, benefit—politically and in other ways, such as fundraising—from exceptionally devoted friends, sometimes in high places, including alums, local politicians, business and university leaders, even journalists” (Finn, 2012, pg. 13).
Are Exam Schools Effective
There was not really a difference in standardize testing
“Our results offer little evidence of an achievement gain for those admitted to an exam school.... In spite of their exposure to much higher-achieving peers and a more challenging curriculum, marginal students admitted to exam schools generally do no better on a variety of standardized tests.”
Williams (Divvy)
Different Stereotypes
Girls learn in quieter environments, focus on being relatable and feelings
girls had pastel classrooms decorated with flowers
Boys learn in interactive environments
“The specific concerns is that claims about neurobiology are being used to justify educational arrangements in which boys and girls are trained to conform to sex-role stereotypes rather than to challenge them.” Williams 561
Disadvantages
Guys and girls learn differently, girls learn in a quiet more structured way, while boys would rather be moving around and doing something
Leveraging Disadvantage
SEX DIFFERENCE AND SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE
Focus on the social aspect that was involved in vocational schools.
From this the students need to have a mindset that is focused on one specific career
“Established vocational training as an alternative for those who were leaving school at 14 years of age would, it was hoped, vastly extend general education, provide a reason for continued school attendance of more persons fourteen years of age and older, and democratize education.” (Wonacott, 2003, P.4)
The one main difference in thought from public school to vocational schools is that the degree the is earned from a vocational school lasts longer and means more than it would in a public school
Elite Boarding Schools
(Chase Divvy)
demographic elite
Depending on their assets, this places most families in the top income brackets of the 1RS. According to a recent newsletter from the president of the NAIS, "Only the top 4% of families in terms of income ($200,000+) can readily afford an independent school
historical elite
scholastically elite
typological elite
geographically elite
Carnevale
4 Major components
formal postsecondary education programs
• “Formal postsecondary programs include classroom-based programs at public and private four-year colleges and universities, as well as community colleges and vocational schools.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 78)
Public Schooling and Child Welfare (Jared Divvy)
Educators in public schooling argue that caseworkers give up on the children.
○ Public schools and child welfare agencies must begin to work together to support students' educational functioning. (Altshuler, 2003, p. 61)
Barriers and successful practices that affect foster students
Kids feel that they are being treated differently than other kids and this can affect their behavior in the classroom.
Child Welfare
Caseworkers
Argue that public educators give up on their students.
Both do not work together to help the children most in need. They need to collaborate to support the students who receive little to no support at home.
Many students living in foster care struggle academically and socially in school. Compared with other children in similar classes or normed expectations, children in foster care have weaker cognitive abilities.
Few mechanisms exist to support successful collaboration between public child welfare systems and public education systems, despite the fact that most children living in foster care attend public schools.
Students
The students noted that their ability to perform well in the classroom is affected by either their worries of being moved unexpectedly or experiencing the "new student syndrome" repeatedly. (Altshuler, 2003, p. 60)
The students are discussing the difficulties that they have when it comes to changing schools and having to get respect from all the teachers over again.
PUBLIC SCHOOLING
Students Living in Public Housing and Attending Public Schools
Students that live in public housing perform worse in school rather than "normal" students.
Many local housing authorities constructed large-scale, densely populated housing developments, which soon became a mainstay of the urban landscape
Districts such as New York have union contracts with uniform teacher salary schedules, so teachers with more experience choose to work in schools with fewer “harder to educate” students
Public housing affects the children by three main factors
Not enough support from families
Too many people living in the homes.
The performance of the students might point to the fact that they are dealing with something at home
”A young student graduates from high school, enrolls in a postsecondary institution such as a university or community college, completes an internship and passes a certification exam during a course of study, and graduates with a postsecondary credential. The student enters the labor market and becomes employed—her employer provides a six-month training regimen that teaches her the career-specific skills she needs to thrive in the workplace.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 76)
industry-based certifications,
“Industry-based certifications are test-based credentials that, unlike certificates, associate’s degrees, and bachelor’s degrees, aren’t tied to formal programs of study. They are highly specialized and are typically earned after an individual completes formal postsecondary education, though they do not always require a postsecondary certificate or degree. IBCs are administered and accredited by third-party, […].” Carnevale and Hanson, 2015, Pg. 81
internships
• “In the United States, internships refer to entry-level positions that function as an important form of vocational training and pre-employment screening. In theory, interns do not provide any significant level of productivity to their employer; instead, their main role is to learn on the job and gain relevant work experience that will prepare them for occupations in a particular industry or career field.” (Carnevale, 2015, p. 82)
employer-based training
Formal Postsecondary Programs of Study
Roughly two-thirds of the students currently enrolled in associate’s degree programs in the United States are programs that prepare them to transfer to a four-year college, while one-third are enrolled in programs that are terminal and career-focused.
About 90 percent of undergraduate students are split evenly between associate’s degree and bachelor’s degree programs (42 percent and 46 percent, respectively), while 8 percent enroll in certificate programs
Charter Schools Findings
Ford, B. (2005). The significance of charter schools and the privatization of standards: Holding the wolf by the ears. Pp. 16-29.
Object of Attack
“It’s very clear to us that we’re about to lose public education. And we’re about to lose it because the overwhelming majority of people are not organized on these issues ... And I see more of this as I go across the country. What we’re trying to do is organize the majority.[11]”(Ford, 2005 pg. 18)
In the editorial pages, organizations representing education workers are portrayed as an enemy in a righteous battle: liberating the children of this country from the shackles of the public schools.
“Of slavery, Jefferson wrote that America had ‘the wolf by the ears’ – unable to let go without fear of being attacked, unable to subdue the beast. While slavery should not be facilely equated with privatization initiatives and business influence, if education is akin to freedom, then I would suggest that a similar dilemma confronts public education in the USA.” (Ford, 2005, p. 18)
The privatization of public education was a real threat, and teachers’ unions in the USA, representing public sector employees, had concerns about public image.
Public Charter Schools
"According to Peter Cookson: ‘Deeply embedded in the charter school concept is the assumption schools chosen by students and families are more accountable and, thus, better learning environments.’ He goes on to call this assumption a ‘mantra’ that ‘may be unfounded. it is difficult to believe that any large-scale system of charter schools could produce a coherent system of public-education’."
"Again, there is that word ‘monopoly’. Being a public school teacher who does not feel all that cozy, I am a bit suspicious of Mr Finn’s motives. I am also suspicious of programs, such as Mr Klein’s and Mr Bloomberg’s, which think it a good idea to bring in Jack Welch, former chief executive officer of General Electric, to give motivational talks to principals to make them better managers."
“‘Deeply embedded in the charter school concept is the assumption schools chosen by students and families are more accountable”(Ford, 2005 pg. 19)
"Shanker believed that education is failing because so many kids are not getting anything out of it. Of all children who remain in schools until they graduate from high school, only 20 percent can write an adequate letter that requires persuasive arguments. What I would like to see is a totally different institution, an institution in which is not lecturing. The teachers' job is not to talk to kids, but to connect them with a learning experience together to solve problems." (Ford, 2005, p.18)
Money Problems and Problem Students
“Charters often only get the state contribution to education and must run the schools on as little as 70% of what public schools run on. How there is a profit to be made in such a proposition is somewhat of a mystery, and no one has yet settled upon a viable business model.
Private Leadership
“While pro-privatization forces may have always seen it as a potential weapon to weaken public education, it is only with the current administration that standards-based reform has been wedded to privatization interests. And the use of charters under NCLB may be the key.”(Ford, 2005 pg. 21)
"Outright rejection ... [of] reform proposals could very well lead our newfound allies in the business community to the conclusion that public schools cannot be changed ... [this] might lead not only to a loss of its vital support, but to its outright opposition; to abandonment of public schools in favor of other alternatives such as private schools, through tax credits or vouchers."
“ ‘student achievement in the US is just as dismal as everyone says’.[26] Standards-based reform has been the main aspect of a continuous education reform that has accepted that schools are failing.”(Ford, 2005 pg. 20)
Damned Statistics and Reversed Positions
"Charter schools doing less well than the nationwide public-school average could easily indicate nothing other than the simple fact that chart schools are typically asked to serve problematic students in low-performing districts with many poor, minority children." (Ford, 2005, p. 21)
Not only does Ford portray the idea that no single test can fairly measure performance, but especially in the case of chart schools without consideration into the school and community's socioeconomic. His explanation states clearly that the reasoning behind charter school scores being lower is simply in effect of that shouldn't imply anything else.
Investment Opportunities and Other Flipped Positions
“Charter schools are public schools with a special charter granted to a lay board of directors.” (Ford, 2005, p. 23)
“Public schools, charters included, have to deal with social pathologies. Without being able to exclude students, public schools have to deal with this to a greater degree, and schools in high poverty areas even more so.” (Ford, 2005, p. 24)
“Public schools, charters included, have to deal with social pathologies. Without being able to exclude students, public schools have to deal with this to a greater degree, and schools in high poverty areas even more so.” (Ford, 2005, p. 24)
Shober, A. F., Manna, P., & Witte, J. F. (2006). Flexibility meets accountability: State charter school laws and their influence on the formation of charter schools in the United States. Pp. 563-587.
Results
“What we find is that the most flexible laws tend to be those with the most provisions for accountability. In other words, if public accountability is indeed a problem in charter schools, it is not because of the laws themselves, but rather how policymakers implement them.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 577)
“to many critics of charter schools who see them as ways to circumvent accountability, more schools are likely to open as accountability becomes stricter.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 578)
Data and Methods
Independent Variables
It is expected that with more flexibility there will be less accountability.
“we expect that as the number of white students increases, so the number of charter schools should decrease. Conversely, higher poverty should be associated with more charter schools. If these schools are indeed responding to needs among at-risk population, then more of these students would likely induce more charters.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 574)
race and poverty
Dependent Variables
flexibility is a related issue
“We defined flexibility as the freedom from general school regulation and the availability of financial and other support for charters in state law” (Shober, Manna, & Witte, 2006, p. 571).
parents and students choose their own education
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 (ideology and flexibility): As a state’s elected officials become more politically conservative, state law will allow more flexibility for charter schools.
Hypothesis 2 (ideology and accountability): As a state’s elected officials become more politically conservative, state law will require charter schools to be less accountable to public authorities.
“Hypothesis 3 (partisanship and flexibility): As a state’s elected officials become more Republican, state law will allow more flexibility for charter schools.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 571)
“Hypothesis 4 (partisanship and accountability): As a state’s elected officials become more Republican, state law will require charter schools to be less accountable to public authorities.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 571)
“States serving large numbers of at-risk and minority students, many of whom struggle to learn key subjects such as reading and math (Jencks & Phillips, 1998; National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2003), may move policymakers to try anything possible to increase these students’ chances of success.3 That would suggest an impulse to give charter operators maximum range to open and operate schools, while not binding them with rigid accountability provisions, which may hamper their ability to creatively address their students’ needs.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 571)
Hypothesis 5 (demographics and flexibility): As the percentage of at-risk students in a state increases, state law will grant charter schools more flexibility.
Hypothesis 6 (demographics and accountability): As the percentage of at-risk students in a state increases, state law will require less public accountability from charter schools.
“Some case studies and school-level quantitative analyses have shown that in most states charter schools serve a higher percentage of disadvantaged students than traditional public schools (Carnoy et al., 2005; Dickman, Van Dunk, Witte, Schlomer, & Weimer, 2003; RPP International, 1999; SRI International, 2004).”(Shober, 2006 pg. 571)
Hypothesis 7 (flexibility and number of charters): As state charter school laws grant more flexibility, more charter schools will open.
Hypothesis 8 (accountability and number of charters): As state charter school laws require more public accountability, fewer charter schools will open.
Overview of Charter Schools
“ In exchange for considerable flexibility in operation and design of curriculum, pedagogy, and other aspects of running a school, charter operators agree to uphold certain standards of accountability through a written contract with an authorizing body.”(Shober, 2006 pg. 567)
"Note that charter schools, as public schools, are required to meet the same accountability standards as traditional schools under the No Child Left Behind (NLCB) Act" (Shober, Manna, & Witte, 2006, p. 567).
“Traditional public schools often may become charters so they can adopt more innovative educational programs. Most states with charter laws allow this process, known as conversion. The federal NLCB Act even incorporates the option to convert to charter status for traditional public schools that persistently fail to meet yearly progress targets. Private schools may also convert to public charters in some states, but at present, religious private schools may not become charter schools, although some states allow conversion to charter status if they drop religious instruction” (Shober, 567).
Public Policy, Competing Values, and American Education
“Despite their increasing popularity, charters remain controversial in part because, like many other school reforms (Tyack & Cuban, 1995), they attempt to satisfy many values simultaneously. Because charter schools are public institutions that rely on tax dollars, arguably they must remain accountable to the larger political community, not just the parents and students who they serve. Still, too much accountability can undermine the flexibility that charter principals and teachers argue is necessary to meet their students’ needs” (Shober, 566).
“Because the American political system generates policy from compromises between separated institutions empowered to act for everyone, it is inevitable that multiple and sometimes competing values will become embedded in public policy (Baumgartner & Jones, 1993). That result fosters tensions that unfold when policy moves beyond the halls of legislatures and into the daily work of public servants and lives of the nation’s citizens” (Shober, 564).
“Several examples of these value tensions exist. Okun’s (1975) famous study identified a “big tradeoff” between efficiency and equality. The irony of democratic capitalist societies, he reasoned, was that they prod people to work better to “get ahead of our neighbors” while simultaneously they embrace “the worth of every human being.” In combination, that drive for both efficiency and equality has produced a mix of political, social, and economic disparities, which suggest the “uneasy compromises” that policymakers have made in constructing institutions such as the nation’s income tax system and social safety net (Okun, p. 1)” (Shober, 564).
“As Cookson and Perseil observe, the large majority of elite boarding schools are located in the Northeast, particularly in New England. Only two southern schools are listed in Baltzell's select 16 schools. Although the academies were a national movement that spread into the Midwest and the frontier, schools that survived were almost by rule in New England. As argued earlier, this was mostly due to their association with elite colleges and the New England elites who sponsored them, but probably more important than their particular location is their particular landscape
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Students at elite boarding schools have a dazzling array of opportunities available to explore various interests, take on unique pursuits, and find a niche in which to demonstrate their talents and passions
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30% of students at elite boarding schools receive some form of financial aid , which means, of course, that the other 70% of the students come from families that can afford the more than $40,000 in tuition and fees to attend the school. education for their kids"
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Kane explains, "If asked about 'independent schools,' most people in the United States would respond with confusion" . This is especially so because independent is a term that some nonpublic schools claim as an alternative to the term private, which carries a more politically charged and, according to Kraushaar even "pejorative connotation"
Americans were also apprehensive about spending their small financial resources in such collective ventures as organized schooling. Although laws were passed in growing states that fomented the establishment of Latin grammar schools, most individuals, particularly those in isolated and rural areas, were not keen on the financial burden that such initiatives would put on their taxes. As a result, academies were usually individual ventures, often with the support of groups of business entrepreneurs who wanted to provide an education for their children.
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Smitzer argues that early Americans had a profound belief in the human capacity for betterment could be accomplished through organized and institutionalized schooling,
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