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Urinary system
lecture 1
kidney
bean shaped
located on either side of the vertebra
protected by the ribs and fat
urinary system
also known as the excretory system
maintains homeostasis
responsible for removing waste
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder, and urethra
parts of the kidney
Cortex- the outer portion where most of the nephrons are
Medulla- the inner section of the kidney
Hilum- a notched or indented area through which the ureter,nerves,blood vessels, and lymph vessels leave and enter the kidney
Nephrons- microscopie filtering unites located in the kidney
Ureters
Muscular tubes about 10-12 inches long
moves urine through tube to bladder
extends from renal pelvis to bladder
bladder
lined with mucous membrane and has a series of folds called rugae that disappear when the bladder expands
three layers of visceral muscle
stores urine until eliminated
bladder can hold approximately 1 cup of urine
urethra
carries urine from bladder to the outside
urinary meatus is the external opening
female- 1.5 inches long
males- 8 inches long
urine
liquid waste
1500-2000 ml produced a day
95% water
waste products are...
urea, uric acid, creatinine, mineral salts, and various pigments
problems
polyuria- excessive urination, oliguria- below normal urination, anuria-absence of urination, dysuria- painful urination, retention- inability to empty bladder, incontinence- involuntary urination, nocturia- urination at night, hematuria- blood in urine, pyuria- pus in urine, proteinuria- protein in urine, albuminuria- albumin in urine
cystitis
inflammation of bladder
caused by pathogen
symptoms-frequent urination, dysuria,burning sensation, hematuria, lower back pain, bladder spasms, fever
Treatment- antibiotics and increase fluid intake
glomerulonephritis or nephritis
inflammation of the glomerulus
followed by strep
symptoms- chills, fever, fatigue, edema, oliguria, hematuria, and albuminuria
Treatment- rest, ristriction of salt, maintenance of fluids, electrolyte balance, antipyetics, diuretics, and antibiots
lecture 2
chronic glomerularnephritis
causes scarring and sclerosing of the glomeruli
symptoms- hematuria, albuminuria, and hypertension as disease progresses, edema, fatigue, anemia, anorexia, weight loss, CHF, pyuria, renal failure
Treatment- low sodium diet, antihypertensive drugs, maintenance of fluid intake and electrolytes, and hemodialysis, kidney transplant
pyelonephritis
inflammation of the kidney tissue
s/s- chills, fever, back pain, fatigued, dysuria, hematuria, pyuria
treatment- antibiotics, increased fluid intake
Kidney stones
renal calculus, formed when salts in the urine precipitate
s/s- pain sudden and intense hematuria, nausea, vomiting, frequent urge to urinate, urinary retention
Treatment- increase fluids, provide pain medication, straining all urine through a gauze pad or filtering paper, extrcorporeal show wave lithotripsy, in some cases surgery
Kidney failure
renal failure- when the kidneys stop functioning
acute renal failure
s/s- oliguria or anuria, headache, an ammonia odor to the breath, edema, cardiac arrhythmia, and uremia
treatment- dialysis, restricted fluid intake, and correction of the condition causing renal failure
can be caused by hemorrhage, shock, injury, poisoning, nephritis, or dehydration
chronic renal failure- progressive loss of kidney function
caused by glomerulonephritis, hypertension, toxins, endocrine disease, long term substance abuse, and alcoholism
s/s- nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, decreased mental ability, convulsions, muscle irritability, an ammonia odor to the breath, uremic frost, coma, or death
treatment- dialysis, diet modifications and restrictions, careful skin and mouth care and control of fluid intake. kidney transplant
uremia
also called azotemia is a toxic condition that occures when the kidneys fail and urinary waste enters the bloodstream
s/s- headache, dizziness, N/V/D, an ammonia odor to breath, oliguria or anuria, mental confusion, convulsions, comma, and death
treatment- restricted diet, cardiac medications, dialysis until kidney transplant
urethritis
inflammation of the urethra usually caused by bacteria or bubble bath
s/s- frequent and painful urination, redness and itching at the urinary meatus and purulent discharge
treatment- sitz baths or warm moist compresses, antibiotics, increased fluid intake
Nutrition
lecture 1
Nutrition
Most people know there is a fundamental relationship between food and good health
includes all body processes relating to food (digestion, absorption, metabolism, circulation, and elimination.
Nutritional status: state or condition of one’s nutrition
Role of nutrition in physical, mental, emotional, and psychological affects height, weight, strength, skeletal and muscular development, physical agility, resistance to disease, appetite, posture, complexion, mental ability to name a few.
Effects of good nutrition
healthy appearance, good attitude, proper sleep and bowel habits, high energy level, enthusiasm and freedom form anxiety
can delay diseases like-HTN, Athersclerosis, osteoporosis, DM, and malnutrition
Essential Nutrients
Used by the body to perform many different body functions
Nutrients are divided into six groups
Carbohydrates
Lipids (fats and oils)
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
Carbohydrates
Major source of readily usable energy,commonly called starches or sugars
Main source: breads, cereals, noodles or pastas, crackers, potatoes, corn, peas, beans, grains fruits, sugars, and syrups
Cellulose: fibrous indigestible form of plant carbohydrate (bran, whole-grain, cereals, and fibrous fruits and vegetables
Lipids
Fats and oils and are organic compounds
Maintain body temperature by providing insulation, cushion organs and bones, aid in absorption of fat soluble vitamins and provide flavor
Main source: butter, margarine, oils, cream, fatty meats cheese, and egg yolk
Three of the most common are:
Triglycerides (fats and fatty acids)
Phospholipids (lecithin)
Sterols (cholesterol)
Classified as saturated or polyunsaturated
Polyunsaturated fats are soft or oily at room temperature
Vegetable oils, margarines and other products made from vegetable oils, fish, and peanuts
Saturated fats are solid at room temperature
Fats in meats, eggs, whole milk, cream, butter and cheeses
Protein
The basic component of all body cells
Essential for building/repairing tissue, and providing energy and heat
Proteins are made up of 22 building blocks called amino acids
9 are essential for life and proteins that have all 9 are called complete proteins
meats, fish, milk, cheese, and eggs
The remaining 13 amino acids are called incomplete proteins
vegetable foods like cereals, soybeans, dry beans, peas, corn and nuts
Digestive
lecture 1
system
also known as the gastrointestinal
physical and chemical breakdown of food
alimentary canal and the accessory organs
alimentary canal
long muscular tube
begins in the mouth and ends at the anus
accessory organs: salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Mouth, buccal, or oral cavity
recieves food as it enters the body
actions- food is tasted, broken down physically by the teeth, lubricated and partially digested by saliva, swallowed
Teeth and Tongue
teeth-structures in the mouth that physically breakdown food by chewing and grinding
Tongue- muscular organ that contains special receptors called taste buds that allow a person to taste sweet, salty, sour, and bitter sensations
pharynx or throat
carries air and food
carries food bolus to the esophagus
when bolus is swallowed, epiglottis closes to prevent food for going into the resp system
Esophagus
muscular tube behind the trachea
carries bolus to stomach
peristalsis moves food towards stomach
Stomach
receives food from the esophagus
mucous membrane lining contains rugae
cardiac sphinceter
pyloric sphincter
food remains in stomach for 1-4 hours
Gastric juices
hydrochloric acid- kills bacteria, helps absorb iron and activates pepsin
pepsin- starts protein digestion
lipase- starts the chemical breakdown of fats
rennin- aids int eh digestion of milk, but is only present in infants
Small intestine
about 20 feet long; 1 inch in diameter
receives food form the stomach in the form of chyme
divided into three section: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Function
duodenum- first 9-10 inches. this is where bile from the gallbladder and liver and pancreatic juice enter the section through ducts
jejunum is approximately 8 feet long
ileum is the final 12 feet of the small intestine and connects with the large intestine at the cecum
they are all lined with villi
when exits small intestine, only waste, indigestible materials, and excess water remains
Large intestine
final section of the alimentary canal
about 5 feet long; 2 inches in diameter
functions: absorption of water and reaming nutrients, storage of indigestible materials before elimination, synthesis and absorption of some B-complex vitamins and vitamin k
cecum is where the appendix lies
colon
rectum
Liver
largest gland in the body
accessory organ
under the diaphram
functions: secretes bile, stores sugar, produces heparin, produces cholesterol, detoxifies substances
Gallbladder
small muscular sac
under the liver
stores and concentrates bile
Pancreas
fish shapes organ behind the stomach
produces pancreatic juices and insulin
Appendicitis
acute inflammation of the appendix
s/s- generalized abdominal pain that later localizes at the LRQ, N/V, mild fever, increase WBC
treat with surgery
cholecystitis
inflammation of the gallbladder due to gallstones
s/s- frequently after eating fatty foods, indigestion, N/V, pain that starts int eh under the rib cage and radiates to the upper shoulders
cirrhosis
chronic destruction of the liver cells accompanied by scar tissue
cause- hepatitis, bile duct disease, chemical toxins, and malnutrition caused by alcoholism
s/s- liver enlargement, anemia, indigestion, nausea and edema n legs and feet, hematemesis (vomiting blood), nosebleeds, jaundice and ascites,disorientation, hallucinations, hepatic coma, and death can occur
treatment- preventing further damage to the liver. Avoid alcohol, gt proper nutrition, vitamin supplements, diuretics, rest, infection prevention, and appropriate exercise.
constipation
fecal materials remain in the colon too long, becoming too hard and dry to eliminate
cause- poor bowel habits, chronic laxative use, a diet low in fiber and certain digestive diseases
treatment- high fiber diet, fluids, exercise
diarrhea
frequent watery stool, causes are infection, stress, diet and irritated colon and toxic substances
treatment- directed towards eliminating the cause, replacing fluid and modifying the diet
diverticulitis
inflammation of the diverticular that form the intestine and mucosal lining pushes through the surrounding muscle
s/s-abdominal pain, irregular bowel movements, flatus, constipation or diarrhea, abdominal distention. Low grade fever, N/V.
treatment- antibiotics, stool softening medications, pain medications, high fiber diet, and in severe cases, surgery.
Gastroenteritis
inflammation of the mucosal membrane that lines the stomach
cause: food poisoning, infection, and toxins
s/s-abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea
treatment- Rest and increase fluid intake are treatment of choice, sometimes antibiotics are ordered.
Hemorrhoids
painful, dilated veins, of the rectum and/or anus
cause:straining, constipation, pressure (pregnancy) insufficient fluid intake, laxative abuse, and prolonged sitting and standing.
s/s- itching, pain, bleeding
treatment- high fiber diet, increased fluid intake, stool softeners, sitz bath, warm moist compresses, and in some cases a hemorrhoidectomy.
Hepatitis
A,B,C
A- most benign
B- transmitted by blood or bodily fluids, more serious than A
C- most serious, spread though bodily fluids and blood, would need liver transplant
Hernia
internal organ presses through a weakened area or natural opening in the body wall
s/s-heartburn, stomach distention, chest pain and difficult swallowing.
Treatment-bland diet, small frequent meals, staying upright after eating, surgical repair.
pancreatitis
inflammation of the pancreas
cause-excessive alcohol intake or blockage of pancreatic ducts by gallstones
s/s-severe abdominal pain, that radiates to the back, N/V, and diaphoresis, and jaundice
Treatment- depends on the cause.
peritonitis
inflammation of the abdominal peritoneal cavity
s/s-Abdominal pain, distention, fever, N/V
Treatment-antibiotics, and if necessary surgical repair.
ulcer
open sore on the lining of the digestive tract
major cause- H. pylori
s/s-burning pain, indigestion, hematemesis and bloody stools
treatment-antibiotics if H pylori is present.
surgery in some cases.
ulcerative colitis
severe inflammation of the colon, then the formation of ulcers and abscesses
causes- stress or food allergy or an autoimmune reaction.
s/s-diarrhea, containing blood, pus, and mucus, weight loss, weakness, abdominal pain, anemia, and anorexia.
periods of remission and exacerbation are common.
treatment-controlling inflammation, reducing stress, and mild sedation, maintaining proper nutrition and avoiding substances that aggravate the condition.