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Microbial Diversity (Fungi (General characteristics (Chemoorganoheterotrop…

- - - - Glucose catabolism, CO2 fixation and ability to synthesize methane
        
        3 carbon fixation pathways
        
        Dicarboxylate
        
        Crenarchaeota
        
        3-Hydroxpropionate/4-Hydroxybutyrate
        
        Crenarchaeota/ Thaumarchaeota
        
        Reductive Acetyl-CoA
        
        Euyarchaeaota
  - - - Mesophilic Ammonia Oxidizers
        
        Capable of nitrification (ammonia to nitrate)
        
        important in marine environments
      - Group I archaea
        
        unique membrane lipid
        
        used to known as crenarchaeol & now as thaumarchaeol
    - - 5 major groups
        
        Thermoplasms
        
        3 different genera
        
        Picrophilaceae
        
        Ferroplasmataceae
        
        Thermoplasmataceae
        
        Thermoacidophiles
        
        Lack cell walls
        
        Extremely thermophilic S0-metabolizers
        
        3 genera,
        Thermococcus, Paleococcus, Pyrococcus
        
        Motile by flagella
        
        optimum growth temp. 88-100°C
        
        Strict anaerobes
        
        Reduce sulfur to sulfide
        
        Halobacteria
        
        Extreme halophiles
        
        requires at least 1.5M NaCl
        
        cell wall disintegrates [NaCl]<1.5M
        
        Aerobic, respiratory, chemoheterotrophs with
        complex nutritional requirements
        
        Sulfate reducers
        
        eg: Archaeoglobus
        
        irregular coccoid cells
        – cell walls consist of glycoprotein subunits
        
        extremely thermophilic (optimum 83°C)
        – isolated from marine hydrothermal vents
        
        Metabolism
        
        – lithotrophic (H2) or organotrophic (lactate/glucose)
        
        – use sulfate, sulfite, or thiosulfite as electron acceptor
        
        – possess some methanogen coenzymes
        
        Methanogens
        
        Produce methane through metanogenesis
        
        Methanogenesis
        
        last organic compund degradation step
        
        occurs in anaerobic condition
        
        eg; animals rumen, anaerobic sludge digesters
        
        Examples
        
        Methanothermus, Methanobacterium,Methanogenium, Methanospirillum
        
        Ecological & practical importance
        
        Important in wastewater treatment
        
        can oxidize iron
        
        contribute to corrosion of iron pipes
        
        production of methane
        
        use as burning fuel & energy source
        
        is greenhouse gas & contribute to global warming
        
        symbionts with certain bacteria in assisting carbon/sulfur cycling
    - - Extremely thermophilic
      - Strict anaerobes
      - Some are acidophiles
      - Sulfur-dependent
        
        use as electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration
        
        use as electron source
      - Organotrophs & lithotrophs
      - Examples
        
        Sulfolobus & Thermoproteus
- - - - Aquifex
        
        Gram-negative rod
        
        • thermophile
        
        – growth optimum 85°C - maximum 95°C
        
        • microaerophilic
        
        • chemolithoautotroph
        
        – uses hydrogen, thiosulfite, and sulfur as electron donor
        
        – uses oxygen as electron acceptor
        
        – genome ~1/3 size of E. coli
      - Hydrogenobacter
  - - - Spherical or rod-shaped; in pairs or tetrads
      - – Gram-positive (lack typical Gram-positive cell wall)
      - • layered outer membrane similar to Gram-negatives
      - • L-ornithine in peptidoglycan
      - • lacks teichoic acid
      - – plasma membrane has large amounts of palmitoleic acid rather than phosphatidylglycerol phospholipids
    - - Aerobic
      - – catalase positive
      - • Extraordinarily resistant to dessication and radiation
      - – can survive 3–5 million rad
      - Isolated from ground meat, feces, air
  - - - Green sulfur bacteria
      - Representative genera are Chlorobium,
        Prosthecochloris, and Pelodictyon
      - Morphologically diverse, thrive in sulfide rich areas, have chlorosomes
      - Lack flagella; nonmotile , some have gas vesicles
      - Obligate anaerobic photolithoautotrophs
        
        bacteriochlorophyll reaction center in plasma
        membrane
        
        use H2S, elemental sulfur, H2 as electron source
    - - Green non sulfur bacteria
      - Has both photosynthetic & nonphotosynthetic members
      - Examples
        
        genus Chloroflexus
        
        Photosynthetic, us an unusual 3-hydroxypropionate bi-cycle to fix CO2
        
        Filamentous
        
        Thermophilic
        
        anoxygenic photosynthesis
        
        genus Herpetosiphon
        
        non photosynthetic
        
        gliding, rod-shaped, filamentous
        
        aerobic chemoorganotrophs
    - - Heliobacteria
    - - Carry out oxygenic photosynthesis,
      - have 2 photosystems
      - use water as an electron donor & generate oxygen during photosynthesis
    - - Purple sulfur
      - Purple non-sulfur
- - - - Fornicata, Parabasilia, and
        Euglenozoa
        
        Fornicata
        
        Microaerophilic protist
        
        epidemic diarrhea from
        contaminated water
        
        Giardia have mitosomes
        
        members are flagellated and
        lack mitochondria
        
        Giardia – causes diarrhea, Hexamida salmonis – fish
        parasite, H. meleagridis – turkey
        pathogen
        
        Parabasilia
        
        flagellated endosymbionts of animals
        
        Lack a distinct cytosome, use phagocytosis to engulf food
        
        Subgroups
        
        Trichonymphida
        
        obligate mutuals of wood-eating insects such as termites
        
        release cellulose for digesting
        
        ecdysone hormone produced by host triggers sexual reproduction
        
        Trichomonadida
        
        do not required oxygen
        
        possess hydrogenosomes
        
        asexual reproduction only
        
        Euglenozoa
        
        representative phototroph
        
        pellicle - proteinaceous strips, microtubules
        
        red eye spot (stigma) orients to light
        
        chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids
    - - Amoeboid motility - pseudopodia for locomotion and
        feeding
      - Naked amoebae are surrounded
        only by a plasma membrane
      - Testate amoebae
      - Reproduce by binary or multiple
        fission
    - - Examples
        
        Stramenopila
        
        Extremely diverse including diatoms, golden and brown algae, öomycetes and labyrinthulids, haptophytes and brown seaweeds and kelp
        
        Diatoms
        
        Chlorophylls and accessory pigments
        
        Frustule – two-piece cell wall of silica
        
        Asexual division
        
        Important in global carbon cycling
        
        Unifying feature is
        heterokont flagella
        
        Alveolata
        
        Groups
        
        Dinoflagellata
        
        Large group found in marine plankton
        
        Nutritionally complex
        
        Trichocysts are defensive proteins
        
        Symbiotic forms (zooxanthellae)
        
        Ciliophora
        
        Chemoorganotrophic
        
        Found in both benthic and planktonic communities in water and soil systems
        
        Use many cilia as locomotory and feeding organelles
        
        Apicomplexa
        
        Distinguished by the unipolar apical complex
        
        Parasitic with complex life cycles
        
        Most important member is Plasmodium, the cause of malaria
      - General characteristics
        
        Amoeboid in morphology
        
        distinguished by fine pseudopodia, primarily used in feeding
        
        axopodia
    - - Includes organisms containing a photosynthetic plastid that arose through an ancient endosymbiosis with a cyanobacterium
      - Examples; Chloroplastida and Chlamydomonas
- - - - sac fungi
      - found in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats
      - red, brown, and blue-green molds cause food spoilage
      - Genus Aspergillus
        
        A. fumigatus
        
        allergies and significant pathogen
        
        A. oryzae
        
        production of fermented foods
        
        Aspergillus
      - Pathogenic Ascomycota
        
        Claviceps purpura
        
        parasite on higher plants
        
        ergotism
        
        Candida, Blastomyces,
        Histoplasma
        
        human pathogens
        
        Stachybotrys – “sick building
        syndrome”
        
        Aspergillus – aflatoxins and
        cancer
    - - Examples include rusts, shelf fungi, puffballs, toadstools
      - Sexual reproduction form basidium
        
        Basidiospores are released at
        maturity
      - Impact on Human beings
        
        Edible and non-edible mushrooms
        
        toxins are poisons and hallucinogenic
        
        Pathogens of humans, other animals, and plants
        
        systemic infection, primarily of lungs and central nervous system
        
        Decomposers
      - Urediniomycetes and
        Ustilaginomycetes
        
        Plant pathogens causing rusts and smuts
        
        dimorphic
    - - Aseptate flat hyphae (appressoria) to penetrate host plants; produce large, multinucleate spores and only reproduce asexually
      - Major importance as mycorrhizal symbionts of
        vascular plants
        
        form intracellular associations within roots of almost all
        herbaceous plants and tropical trees
        
        mutualistic relationship (both benefit)
    - - Obligate intracellular fungal parasites
      - Transitional form is a spore structure capable of
        surviving outside the host
      - Structurally similar to ‘classic’ fungi
        
        contain chitin, trehalose, and mitosomes
        
        lack mitochondria, peroxisomes and centrioles
        
        unique morphology is polar tube essential for host
        invasion
      - Pathogenesis
        
        Severe in HIV/AIDS patients
    - - Zygomycetes
      - Most are saprophytes
      - Form coenocytic hyphae containing numerous haploid nuclei
      - importances
        
        foods, antibiotics and other drugs, meat tenderizer, and food coloring
      - Genus Rhizopus
        
        R. stolonifer
        
        grows on surface of moist carbohydrate rich foods such as bread
        
        hyphae quickly cover surface as rhizoids, absorb nutrients
        
        Importances
        
        Rhizopus-Burkholderia symbiosis - seedling blight in rice bacterium Burkholderia growing within
        Rhizopus produces toxin
        
        Used to produce tempeh from soybeans
        
        Used with soybeans to make sufu curd
        
        used to produce anesthetics, birth control, alcohols, meat tenderizers, yellow coloring in margarine
    - - Simplest fungi, also called chytrids
        
        free living, saprophytic
        
        found in the anoxic rumen of herbivores
      - Asexual and sexual reproduction
      - Produce a zoospore with single,
        posterior, whiplash flagellum
        
        most primitive form of spore dispersal
        
        flagella lost in higher forms
      - Many members degrade cellulose and
        keratin
  - - - global from polar to tropical
      - few aquatic species
    - - mycorrhizae
        
        with plant roots
      - Lichens
        
        with algae or cyanobacteria
    - - Degrade complex organic material to simple organic compounds and inorganic molecules