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A-15 Reading Notes Modules 31-33 Unit VII: Cognition (Module 32: Storing…
A-15 Reading Notes Modules 31-33 Unit VII: Cognition
Module 31: Studying and Encoding Memories
Our memory enables us to remember people, speak, and remember how to get places
Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Storage is the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval is the process of getting information our of memory storage
Parallel processing is processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
Every time you learn something new, our brain's neural connections change, and form/strengthen pathways that allow us to interact with and learn from our constantly changing environment
Sensory memory is the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term memory is activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-term memory is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Working memory is a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Without focused attention, information fades
Ask Yourself Question:
Yes, I have used the three parts of my memory system today when we were talking about the Holocaust in my history class, I had already learned about it so I had to retrieve all of the information I had learned previously.
Test Yourself Question:
The correct order is: Sensory memory, working/short term memory, and long-term memory.
Test Yourself Question:
The newer idea of a working memory highlights the active processing that we now know takes place in Atkinson-Shiffrin's short-term memory stage. While this model viewed short-term memory as a temporary holding space, working memory plays a key role in processing new information and connecting it to information previously stored.
Test Yourself Question:
Active processing of incoming visual and auditory information and focusing our spotlight of attention.
Explicit memory is retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Effortful processing is encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Automatic processing is unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as the meanings of words
Implicit memory is a retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
Some disorders slowly strip away memory
Alzheimer's disease begins as difficulty remembering new information and progresses into an inability to do everyday tasks. People you are close to become strangers; complex speech devolves to simple sentences; the brain's memory centers weaken and wither
Before the mouth can form our answer to any questions, the mind knows, and is aware that it knows
Ask Yourself Question:
If I had a disease that impaired my memory, my daily life would be majority affected because I would not be able to remember who the people closet to me are, whom I see everyday. If I had the ability to remember like Russian journalist Solomon Shereshevskii, my daily life would benefit because I would be able to do exceptionally well in school.
Test Yourself Question:
Multiple-choice questions test our
recognition
. Fill-in-the-questions test our
recall
.
Our implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills and classically conditioned association among stimuli
Sensory memory feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images of scenes of echoes of sounds
Iconic memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
Echoic memory is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
George Miller proposed that we can store about seven pieces of information in short-term memory
Chunking is organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Mnemonics is memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational deices
Spacing effect is the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield to better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Encoding is the process of getting information into the memory system
Testing effect is enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
Ask Yourself Question:
It doesn't really surprise me that most of my memory processing is automatic because we have a second unconscious track which allows us to process things without our awareness. If our memory processing was effortful it would be extremely difficult to do certain things quickly.
Test Yourself Question:
Automatic processing is unconscious encoding of incidental information, an example is when we effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen, such as "This is the fourth time I have had to retie my shoe today." Effortful processing is consciously encoding information, an example is trying to unscramble a sentence that is written backwards.
Test Yourself Question:
Iconic and echoic memory would occur in Sensory Memory of Atkinson-Shiffrin's three memory stage.
Shallow processing is encoding on a basic level, based on the structure of appearance of words
Deep processing is encoding semantically, based on the meaning on the words
Test Yourself Question:
The most effective strategy would be to use chunking and mnemonics.
Test Yourself Question:
Deep processing makes the material you are learning more personal. It also leads to greater retention.
Ask Yourself Question:
Three ways that I can employ the principles in this section to improve my own learning and retention of important ideas would be to: not cram study because I will just end up forgetting everything, not to keep rereading but to try a different approach if I am not understanding, and to study 10 days before a big test.
Recall is a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition is a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning is a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Module 32: Storing and Retrieving Memories
Memories are brain-based
Brain networks encode, store, and retrieve information that forms our complex memories
Semantic memory is explicit memory of facts and general knowledge one of our two conscious memory systems
Episodic memory is explicit memory of personally experienced events one of our two conscious memory systems
Hippocampus is a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage
The left and right frontal lobs process different types of memories
Left-hippocampus damage can cause people to have trouble remembering verbal information, right-hippocampus damage can cause people to have trouble recalling visual designs and locations
Memory consolidation is the neural storage of a long-term memory
Sleep supports memory consolidation
During sleep the hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval
The cerebellum plays a role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning
The basal ganglia is deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills
Flashbulb memory is a clear; sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Long-term potentiation is an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, a neural basis for learning and memory
Ask Yourself Question:
A time when stress has helped me remember something was when I was younger and I didn't like being away from my parents and I would get anxiety. When I got a little older and anytime I was away from my parents I became anxious.
Test Yourself Question:
The cerebellum and basal ganglia are important for implicit memory processing and the frontal lobes and hippocampus are key to explicit memory processing.
Test Yourself Question:
The amygdala responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories.
Test Yourself Question:
Increased efficiency at the synapse is evidence of the neural basis of learning and memory. This is called
long-term potential.
Test Yourself Question:
Our explicit memories of facts and episodes differ from our implicit memories of skills and classically conditioned responses. The parts of the brain involved in explicit memory processing may have sustained damage in the accident, while the parts involved in implicit memory processing appear to have escaped harm.
Priming is the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Encoding specificity principle is the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
Mood-congruent memory is the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Serial position effect is our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Ask Yourself Question:
I have been in a happy mood lately, my mood has helped me to create fun and enjoyable memories.
Test Yourself Question:
Priming is "memoryless memory"- an implicit, invisible memory without your conscious awareness.
Test Yourself Question: When we are tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the
serial position
effect.
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory
Anterograde amnesia is an inability to form new memories
We have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain
Retroactive interference is the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
Proactive interference is the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
Repression in psychoanalytic theory, is the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Ask Yourself Question:
I do not wish I could discard old memories because they are special. As I grow older, I want my memory to keep improving.
Test Yourself Question:
Three ways we forget are 1. Encoding failure: Unattended information never entered our memory system. 2. Storage decay: Information fades from our memory. 3. Retrieval failure: We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference of motivated forgetting.
Reconsolidation is a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before stored again
Misinformation effect occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event
Source amnesia is faulty memory for house, when or where information was learned or imagine
Deja vu is that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"
Ask Yourself Question:
A time where I was sure I remembered something only to discover later that it was false, was when I had a dream that I fell down the stairs and believed after that I really did, but then I reapplied it was just my imagination.
Test Yourself Question:
Real experiences would be confused with the ones we dreamed of. When we see someone we know, we might be confused whether we were reacting to something they did in real life or in our dream.
Test Yourself Question:
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material to help long-term recall. Schedule spaced study times, don't cram. Make the material personally meaningful. Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods that activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Get a good night's sleep. Test repeatedly.
Test Yourself Question:
It will be important to remember the key points agree upon by most researchers and professionally associations. Sexy abuse, injustice, forgetting, and emory construction ll happen; recovered memories are common; memories from our first for years are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered though hypnosis are especially unreliable; and memories that are real or fake, can emotionally upset us.
Test Yourself Question:
You will experience less
retroactive
(proactive/retroactive) interference if you learn new material in the hour before sleep than you will if you learn it before turning to another subject.
Test Yourself Question:
Freud believed that we
repress
unacceptable memories to minimize anxiety.
Retrograde amnesia is an inability to retrieve information from one's past
