Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Violence in Media and Pornography (Pornography (Content analyses (Children…
Violence in Media and Pornography
Media Violence
Levels of violence
Public debate
Violence in the media e.g. gore used for shock, not necessary
Violent criminals watch violent media
Intelligent enough to know the difference - violence vs. reality?
Watch things but don't re-enact
Watch violent movies but don't commit violent crime
Society becoming more violent - stats say because of media violence
McAnaly et al (2012)
Exposing ourself to more violence
James Bond content analysis
More freq/severe violence in newer films
Societal changes = now acceptable
Violence on TV
Cumberbatch (1988)
Japan and US = 80% of prime time contain violence
Majority
56% in UK
Williams et al (1982)
Mean - 9 physical, 8 verbal acts
Per PT programme hour
69% = violence to central plot
As an effective means of problem solving
Video games/ computer
85% = some violence
1/2 = violence actions
TV = not the only type of violence media
TV becoming more violent - explicit, gory violence on regular basis (common place)
End of primary ed = seen 8000 TV murders, 100,000 other violent acts
Evidence from Lab
Meta-analyses
Andison (1977)
31 lab experiments
Aggression machine - shock generator = quantitive measure of aggression
Violent vs. non violent viewers give shocks
Violent = more shocks after being angered
Wood et al (1991)
28 experiments
Offenders instituations
Split sample + gave violent movies
Observed nature reactions > increase in aggression towards others
Findings
Learning and modelling - adults imitated especially if rewarded e.g. abusers
Norms = conveyed
Revenge enhances effects
Identification with aggressor enhances effects e.g. violent toys > act out/internalise identity of aggressor
Bandura
- Bobo doll, observation
Realism
Enhances effects
Footage of war - real = more aggressive vs reenactment
Field/Correlational Studies
Outside lab
Communities studies before and after intro of television reception
Cross lagged correlational studies
Early preferences for violent TV predict aggression 10 yrs later
Aggression at time one did not predict later TV viewing
Huesman et al (2003)
Criminal records
Confirmed relationship between early preference + criminal activity
Therefore predictive of criminality
Anderson et al (2003)
Review effects of violence in TV, film, video, games, music
Media violence increases likelihood of aggressive/violent behaviour in both immediate + LT
Clearest in TV/film
But games seen to dominate - enthusiasm surrounding gore/violence
ST = thoughts, LT = shaping individuals/society
Explanations for Effects
Short Term
Priming aggressive cognitions - priming > more aggressive behaviours
e.g. using word lists, violent words = more likely to be violent when given chance to aggress
Also in songs
Identifying with aggressor - emotional involvement
Arousal
Excitation-transfer hypothesis
Misattribution of arousal
Seek explanation but incorrectly label
Triggered by media but misattribute dot another person
Imitation especially in children
Long Term
Emotional blunting, desensitisation, and habituation
Numb to violence
Neuroscience evidence from fMRI
Freq violent movie watcher = decreased emotional response in brain when watching violent movies
D =
Decreased perception
Decreased attention
Decreased sympathy
Violence as normative
Decreased negative attitudes
Cultivation hypothesis
Cultivating beliefs > violent media people think they are more likely to be victim of violent crime
Reality vs media - media portrays more violent world
Awash with violent representations the world has never seen, every home sees graphic scenes of brutality
Social scripts - norms about violence
Scripts and priming = highly compatible
Bushman & Anderson (2009)
Study 1
Violent game/not
While completing questionnaire heard altercation
Help? How long? Severity?
Less likely to help, take longer, rate less severe, less likely to notice
Study 2
Watched different types of films - violent/not
No difference before the movie therefore not violent people being attracted to violent films
After movie = longer to assist therefore violent films = affect on helping behaviours
Reducing Harmful Effects
Censorship? Programming watershed? - Rarely suggested
Distancing oneself - artistic expression/effects = reduce impact
Realising media violence isn't always real
Parental guidance - shared parenting + conversations about what was being watched
'Inoculation' of kids and media awareness training - Exposed to violence + shared why wrong = inoculate > critical reading of media
Pornography
Content analyses
Brosius et al (1993)
50 videos from 79-88
Spotlight sexual desires of men
Portraying women as sexually willing and avaliable
Women there to serve sexual desires of men
Women = sexual objects; degrading negative stereotyping of women and ethnic minority groups
Mixing violence with sex
Britain - 33% of internet users access hardcore porn - heaviest demand = children, bondage, sadomasochism, and sex acts with animals (violent)
Porn = more readily available and online communities can form around deviant sexual practices e.g. paedohpilia
Dietz & Evans (1982)
- mags + book covers = bondage, domination, violence against women
Harmon & Barron (1996)
- analysed internet newsgroup alt.sex.stories, 40.8% of stories had non-consensual element
Kimmel & Barron (2000)
- 26.9% of video scenes contained violence
Children and Pornography
80% of children exposed by 17 (can start at 11 or younger)
Can access all kinds of porn - bestiality, child, and rape porn
Children like media with children so are more attracted to child porn rather than being disgusted
Interent porn = easy to assess
Used as sex education
Imitate + look up to adults as role models
90% of scenes feature un-protected sex
Causal sex, group sex and sex with strangers = normal
Woman depicted as subordinate, sexual objects
Coercion, violence
Habituation + emotional blunting
Early onset particularly problematic
Field Studies
Kinsey studies - sex offenders not more exposed to porn than non-offenders, however pre-internet so harder to access
Paedophiles and pornography > don't necessarily rely on porn but create their own
Howitt (1995)
- offenders more likely to make own porn than use commercial
US research finds a link between offenders and use of porn
Correlational studies
Court (1984)
as circulation of porn increased so did reported number of rapes
Baron & Straus (1984)
- US sales figures for porn mags correlate with rape figures
Crammer & McFarlane (1994)
- battered women report former partners used porn
Bauserman (1996)
- evidence so far for an effect of porn limited; possibly indirect social learning effect
Effects on romantic relationship
Lambert et al (2012)
Mixed methods - observational, behavioural, experiementation
1: Commitment and consumption
2: Replication of study 1
3: Experiment on commitment
4: Online chat flirtations
5: Infidelity and consumptions
In stable relationships but seen to flirt more if exposed to porn
Further effects
Exposure can shape attitudes to women
Exposure can shape understanding of sex
Exposure can share relationship and sexual behaviours - condom use, number of partners, casual sex, relationship commitment, satisfaction with partners, engagement in extra marital behaviour, aggressiveness towards women
Exposure can impact body image, self esteem, sexual anxiety and relationship confidence in M/F
US college men had more body dissatisfaction and relationship anxiety the more heavily they viewed porn
Cline's
four progressive stages and effects
Addiction - hooked where addiction rules his life
Escalation - more and more deviant kinds require to stimulate, prefers imagery and masturbation to real
Desensitization - once considered taboo = now common
Acting out sexually - reality/fantasy become blurred, act out behaviours which have been regularly exposed, watching doesn't excite them
Experimental studies
Eysenck & Nias (1978)
- conditioning of orgasm/masturbation to violent porn
Zillman (1971)
- arousal and excitation-transfer
Linz et al (1998)
- The rape myth = women enjoy rape, more raped watched means less sympathy and more belief in the myth
Child pornography exposure strong diagnostic indicator of paedophilia
Combating negative effects
Debriefing with discussion
Donnerstein suggests mass educational and public awareness campaigns
Distinguish erotica from pornography
New challenges posed by internet pornography >
Bryant (1985)
reports that children are especially likely to want to enact scenes viewed
Overview
Definitions
Pornography = erotic depictions intended to incite sexual arousal
Soft porn = simulated sexual acts, easily purchased from mainstream outlets and shown on cable/satellite TV
Hard core porn = actual sex acts including visible penetration, only be purchased legally from licensed adult outlet (sex shops), or downloaded from internet
Debates/Controversies
Easier to access than before
Effects on children?
Changing ? - violent, deviant
Leading to addiction/sexual dysfunction?
Changing understanding of sexuality + actual sexual behaviour?
Linked to rising sexual crime rates?
Reflect sexalisation of society?
Degrade and exploit women?
Destroy relationships?
Feminist views
Some pro-porn feminists - women should be allowed to be sexual
But many = anti, believing that it is harmful