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Unit 5 Review - Advanced Chemistry Applications (Chapter 20 - Organic…
Unit 5 Review - Advanced Chemistry Applications
Chapter 20 - Organic Chemistry
Alkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons that end in -ane
Structural Isomerism
Same formula but different arrangement of atoms
Alkyl substituents
Side chains that replace hydrogens, end in -yl
Reactions
Combustion
React vigorously with oxygen at sufficiently high temperatures
Substitution
One or more hydrogens in alkane replaced by other atoms, often halogens
Alkenes
Unsaturated, with carbon double bonds, ends in -ene
Reactions
Addition
New atoms form single bonds to carbons formerly in double or triple bonds
Polymerization
Multiple small unsaturated hydrocarbons form a chain
Alkynes
Unsaturated, with carbon triple bonds, ends in -yne
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons with pleasant smells such as cinnamon, wintergreen and vanillin, are composed of a benzene six-carbon ring with side chains
Naming: -benzene is added to end of substituent's name
Benzene as a substituent is known as a phenyl group
Many benzenes have special names, e.g. hydroxybenzene is called phenol
Functional Groups
Alcohols
Has an --OH group attached, ends with -ol
Many many uses, especially known for use in internal combustion engines
Classified as primary, secondary or tertiary based on number of R groups attached to same carbon as --OH group
Aldehydes
Has a carbonyl group (C=O) at the end of hydrocarbon chain
At least one hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon
Produced by oxidation of a primary alcohol
Ketones
Has a carbonyl group (C=O) not at the end of the hydrocarbon
Bonded to two carbon atoms
Produced by oxidation of a secondary alcohol
Carboxylic Acids
Has a carboxyl group (--COOH)
Weak acids in solution
Add -oic acid to end of root
Produced by oxidation of a primary alcohol with a strong oxidizing agent
Esters
Formed from reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, releasing water
Has formula RCOOR`
Naming: first word is name of alcohol, second word is name of carboxylic acid, ending with -ate instead of -ic
e.g. acetic acid + isopropyl alcohol = isopropyl acetate
Number Roots
1 - meth
2 - eth
3 - prop
4 - but
5 - pent
6 - hex
7 - hept
8 - oct
9 - non
10 - dec
Petroleum
Composed mainly of hydrocarbons of many sizes
Boiled at different temperatures to separate hydrocarbon sizes
Smallest hydrocarbons used in gasoline, largest in asphalt
Chapter 21 - Biochemistry
Proteins
Amino acids
Proteins are polymers formed from amino acid monomers, joined by peptide bonds
Consist of amino group, carboxyl group and side chain that forms many variants
R groups can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic
Structure
Primary
Sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
Secondary
Polypeptide chain wraps or folds to form alpha-helix or pleated sheet
Tertiary
To form tertiary structure, secondary structure can bend or fold on itself to form globular shape, or can remain straight
Functions
Tertiary structure defines protein function. Denaturation ruins protein by changing tertiary structure.
Common function examples
Structure
Movement
Catalysis
Transport
Storage
Energy transformation
Protection
Control
Buffering
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
AKA simple sugars, end in -ose, form rings in aqueous solution
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides joined by glycoside linkage, e.g. glucose + fructose = sucrose
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides
Starch
Polymer of glucose used in plants for energy storage
Cellulose
Polymer of glucose, structural component of plants. Different linkage means can't be digested by human gut.
Glycogen
Polymer of glucose used in animals for energy storage
Nucleic Acids
Composed of nitrogen-containing organic base, five-carbon sugar, phosphate group
Organic bases
Adenine
Pairs with thymine or uracil
Cytosine
Pairs with guanine
Guanine
Pairs with cytosine
Thymine
Pairs with adenine, only found in DNA
Uracil
Pairs with adenine, only found in RNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Stores genetic information
One less oxygen in deoxyribose, its sugar, than ribose, RNA's sugar, hence the name
Forms double helix where organic bases form hydrogen bonds with each other across opposite sugar-phosphate backbones
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Transmits genetic information for protein formation
Lipids
Hydrophobic, water-insoluble substances
Fats
Most common are triglycerides, esters composed of glycerol and fatty acid chains
When triglycerides are broken down, fatty acids are known as soaps
Soaps in water form micelles, 3-dimensional shapes where polar ends face outward and hydrophobic, nonpolar ends face inward, away from water
Grease that cannot be dissolved by water is absorbed into micelles
Phospholipids
Esters of glycerol with two fatty acids
Found in cell membranes
Waxes
Esters of monohydroxy alcohols
Solids that can form waterproof coatings on leaves, fruit, skin, etc.
Steroids
Have a characteristic carbon ring structure
Cholesterol
Found in almost all organisms
Starting point for many steroid-based molecules
Can form plaque on walls of arteries, leading to serious health issues
Adrenocorticoid hormones
Synthesized in adrenal glands, perform many functions
Sex hormones
Male
Testosterone
Female
Progesterone
Estrogens
Estradiol
Bile acids
Stored in gallbladder, aid in digestion
Chapter 19 - Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
Isotopes
Same atomic number, different mass number. Same number of protons, different number of neutrons
Radioactive Decay
Alpha particle
Nucleus of helium released, removes 2 protons, 2 neutrons
Beta particle
Electron released - changes neutron to proton
Gamma ray
Photon of light released - no change to nucleus
Positron
Same mass as electron, but positive charge - changes proton to neutron
Electron capture
Nucleus captures electron - changes proton to neutron
Half-life
Time required for half of original number of nuclei to decay
100% -> 50% -> 25% -> 12.5% -> 6.25%-> 3.125% -> 1.563%
Real-world applications
Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 taken in by plants until they die - found later in products such as wood, cloth. These objects can be dated by seeing how many of Carbon-14 nuclei have decayed, then using half-life to discover their age.
Radiotracers
Isotopes that decay can be tracked by scanning for radioactivity. Certain nuclides are taken up by organs based on how well they are functioning. Radiotracers used in medical applications for non-intrusive assessments.
Nuclear Energy
Energy released in nuclear processes millions of times greater than that released in chemical reactions
Fusion
Combining two nuclei to form one
More energy than fission, this is how stars produce their energy
Scientists still working to develop feasible fusion process
Fission
Splitting a nucleus into two
Chain reaction
As neutrons are fired at uranium atoms and they split, more neutrons are formed and can split other nuclei
Critical mass
Enough fissionable material must be used, otherwise too many neutrons will escape and the chain reaction will stop
Reactors
Energy from fission is used to heat water to steam, turning turbines to generate electricity
Breeder reactors are reactors that are able to create more fissionable material as a result of the process
Effects of Radiation
Somatic damage
Damage appears in organism's lifetime, may cause sickness or death
Genetic damage
Change genetic machinery, affecting offspring
Factors
Energy of radiation
Penetrating ability of radiation
Ionizing ability of radiation
Chemical properties of radiation source
Units
rem
sievert (Sv)