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Russia 1917-1991 (Lenin 1917-24 (Government (Key laws, actions and reforms…

- - - - Centralised power over vast territory
      - State control over the people
      - Non-democratic
    - - Emphasis on social equality
      - Based on the ideology of Marxism
      - Champions the proletariat above all else
    - - First Sovnarkom- Council of People's Commissars- elected by Congress of Soviets: October 1917
      - Cheka closes Constituent Assembly (Janurary 1918) after Bolshevik failure in November elections
      - Constitution of 1918 makes Sovnarkom responsible to Congress of Soviets, in theory.
      - Mensheviks and SR's expelled from Soviets (1918) following Bolshevik defeat in soviet elections.
      - Increased reliance on loyal party nomenklatura rather than the Soviets in the Civil War (1918-21)
      - From 1920 the Politburo supersedes Sovnarkom as the main centre of government
      - From February 1921 Lenin authorises the Cheka to destroy opposition political parties.
      - 5,000 Mensheviks are arrested during the first 3 months of 1921, at the end of the Civil War.
      - Lenin passes the resolution 'On Party Unity' (a ban on Party factions) at 1921 Party Congress
      - Lenin suffers his first stroke in May 1922: His role in government becomes less significant
  - - - Economy still mainly agricultural
      - Living standards for majority still poor
      - Intention to modernise and industrialise
    - - Increased state control over economy
      - Moves towards a command economy
      - Socialist economy desirable in theory
    - - October 1917: Decree on Land gives peasants right to seize land from nobility and Church
      - March- June 1918- State capitalism: large factories nationalised but under specialist managers
      - 1918-21: War Communism introduced during Civil War to ensure high levels of production of war goods; efficient allocation of workers; food production to feed workers and soldiers
      - To ensure food supplied to urban areas, Cheka authorised to requisition grain from peasants
      - 1918: Working day extended to 11 hours; 1919: work compulsory for all able-bodied, 16-50
      - Industrial workforce declines from 3 million in 1917 1.2 million in 1922
      - During the Civil War, 40% of food comes from the government rations, 60% from the black market
      - By 1921 industrial production stands at only 20% of what it had been in 1913
      - 1921: harvest only 46% of 1913 harvest; famine in rural areas leads to deaths of 6 million
      - March 1921: NEP factories with fewer than 20 people denationalised; money reintroduced
      - NEP sees grain requisition replaced by tax in kind; output similar to 1913 levels by 1926
      - 'Scissors crisis' of 1923 suggests NEP is incapable of industrialising the economy
  - - - Powers of censorship retained
      - Key role given to terror and secret police
      - Culture closely monitored for dissent
    - - Desire to create Homo Sovieticus
      - More active involvement in daily lives
      - Key enemies now = Bourgeoisie
    - - MEDIA AND CULT OF PERSONALITY
      - Decree on the Press November 1917 gives the government emergency powers to close newspapers
      - Creation of Revolutionary Tribunal of the Press January 1918 with powers of censorship
      - Cult of Lenin starts to flourish following assassination attempt on him in August 1918
      - By 1921 the Communists have closed 2000 newspapers and 575 printing presses
      - RELIGION
      - Decree concerning Separation of Church and State (January 1918) RE banned in schools
      - By 1923, 28 Bishops and more than 1000 priests have been killed due to the Red Terror
      - Establishment of Living Church 1923, aided by GPU, in an attempt to split the Orthodox Church
      - SECRET POLICE
      - Establishment of the Cheka (the first Soviet secret police) in December 1917 under Dzerhinsky
      - November 1918: Secret order issued to the Cheka sanctioning the mass execution of priests
      - Cheka under Dzerhinsky organises trial of Socialist Revolutionaries 1922; most imprisoned
      - During 1917-23 the Cheka is responsible for around 200,000 executions (Red Terror)
      - ART AND CULTURE
      - By 1920 there are around 84,000 members of the Proletkult working in over 300 studios
      - October 1920: Following government pressure, proletkult merges with Commissariat of Education
      - Establishment of Department of Agitation Propaganda (agitprop) in Communist Part (1920)
      - In 1921 the dystopian novel 'We' by Zamyatin becomes one of the first books to be banned
  - - - Political elite benefit more than others
      - Women largely marginalised
      - Education under-funded due to war
    - - Manual workers prioritised in benefits
      - Legal rights of women greatly expanded
      - Broadening of education and literacy
    - - SOCIAL SECURITY
      - 1918: Declaration of the Rights of Toiling and Exploited People: abolishes private property and introduces universal labour duty in attempt to undermine traditional bourgeois privileges
      - September 1918: Abled-bodied men aged 16-50 lose the right to refuse employment
      - Rations during War Communism (1918-21): Middle class receive 25%** of rations of proletariat
      - Full employment unsustainable in Civil War: total population of factory workers fall by 25%
      - In 1921 compulsory vaccination is introduced to deal with a major cholera epidemic
      - Unemployment increases in early years of NEP: 5.5% (1921) to 18% (1924) of labour force
      - 1922 Labour Law gives Unions right to negotiate binding agreements with employers under NEP
      - 89% of house building under conditions of NEP is carried out by private companies
      - WOMEN AND FAMILY
      - At the 1918 Party Congress, on 5% of delegates were women and only 10% of the Party members were women
      - Over 70,000 women have combat roles in the Red Army during the Civil War under 1918-21
      - 1919: Creation of Zhenotdel, the women's department of Communist Party, under Kollontai
      - 1920's USSR legalises contraception and becomes first country to legalise abortion on demand
      - Between 1917 and 1928, 70% of divorces are initiated by men often to avoid fatherhood
      - EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE
      - Establishment of unified labour schools (October 1918); aim of free polytechnic education, 8-17
      - 1919 Decree on Literacy requires illiterate people between the ages of 8 and 50 to learn how to read and write
      - During the first 18 months of NEP (1921-22) number of children in education halved
- - - - Creation of a personal dictatorship
      - Violent purges against Party members
      - Creation of a Patronage system
    - - State centralised under Party control
      - Party leadership based in the Politburo
      - Willingness to resort to violence
    - - Stalin appointed as General Secretary of Central Committee of the Communist Party (1922)
      - From 1923 Stalin issues an 'approved list' of candidates, for local parties to choose delegates
      - From May 1924 Stalin initiates the Lenin Enrolment: Party memberships increases by 128,000
      - 1924-28: Stalin establishes new ideological orthodoxy (Socialism in One Country, followed by rapid industrialisation and forced collectivisation
      - During the '20's party members become known as 'apparatchiks', carrying out Politburo orders.
      - Congress of Victors 1934: Stalin receives 927 votes to Kirov's 1225 for election to the CC.
      - In the mid-1930s the Politburo meets only 9 times a year, not weekly as under Lenin.
      - Kirov murder (December 1934) followed by the Great Terror of 1935-38 (K,Z and B executed 1936-38)
      - 95% of those affect by the Great Terror = male party members aged 30 to 45
      - In 1941 Stalin becomes Chair of Sovnarkom, thereby becoming head of both the Party and State
      - Leningrad Affair (1949) 100 officials in Leningrad Party shot for being too independent
      - Politburo name changed to Presidium in 1952; increases from just 10 members to 36
  - - - Ideological commitment to socialism
      - Desire to create a planned economy
      - Proletariat over peasantry
    - - NEP replaced by the 'Great Turn' 1928
      - Centralised plans (commands) increased
      - Reduced need for pragmatic polices
    - - Commencement of the First Five Year Plan October 1928: with production targets set by Gosplan
      - 1927- 40: Coal and Steel production up over four-fold; Oil production up three-fold
      - 1929- 36: Metallurgical works built at Magnitogorsk; 1932-7: Moscow-Volga canal built
      - Building of the White Seal Canal employs 180,000 political prisoners by 1932; 10,000 die
      - 1935-6: Start of the Stakhanovite movement- incentivising workers by rewards and publicity
      - 1928-41: Consumer goods rationed; shoe queues in Moscow in 1930s exceeded 1000 people
      - Living standards neglected: no bathhouse available for 650,000 people in Liubertsy, Moscow
      - Industrial output up by 80% during the 1945-50 in attempt to recover from the war (Fourth Plan); by contrast, only 12% of investment goes into consumer goods and food production
      - Between 1945 and 1950 (Fourth Five year plan), USSR has fastest-growing economy in the world.
      - By 1952 military expenditure consumes almost quarter of the budget (due to Cold War
      - Commencement of collectivisation of agriculture 1928; and full collectivisation (1929)
      - From 1929 dekulakisation commences around 1.5 million kulaks are sent to labour camps
      - 1928-34: grain production decreases from 73.3 million tons to 67.6 million** tons
      - 1932-33: Government-created famine in Ukraine leads to 5 million deaths
      - 1928-33: Grain procurement up from 10.8 to 22.6 million tons; 1928-31: grain exports up from under 1 million tons to 5 million tons; all this despite grain harvests lower than under the NEP.
      - By 1952 grain production had reached its pre-war levels (over 90 million tons)
  - - - Government control over media
      - Vigilance against counterrevolutionaries
      - Key role played by the secret police
    - - Greater orthodoxy and control in the arts
      - Terror campaign within the Party
      - Greater development of leadership cult
    - - MEDIA AND CULT OF PERSONALITY
      - In 1925 the city of Tsaritsyn is re-named Stalingrad, just a year after the naming of Leningrad
      - 1928: glavlit controls access to economic data; restrictions placed on reporting bad news
      - From 1929 the word Vozhd (leader) is increasingly used for Stalin, especially in Pravda
      - Censorship tightens in mid-1930's; works of Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev purged from libraries
      - Publication in 1938 of two histories of the Communist Party, both edited by Stalin, including the best selling Short Cause, which emphasises Stalin's role in the October Revolution
      - Composition of Prokofiev's Zdravitsa- 'A toast!' (1939) to celebrate Stalin's 60th birthday
      - RELIGION
      - Establishment of the League of Militant Godless in 1929; demonstrations of atheism (sky trips)
      - Campaigns against Islam mean that by 1936 Sufi groups (Sufism) are destroyed in some regions
      - By 1939, of the nominally 163 Russian Bishops, only 12 remain at liberty following the purges
      - 414 churches are reopened during the final year of the war (1944-45); the priesthood of the Orthodox Church expands form 9,254 to 11,827 during 1946-48; result of wartime alliance
      - 'The Doctors Plot of 1952-53 might have led to a mass anti-Semitic purge had Stalin not died
      - SECRET POLICE
      - Major expansion of the labour camp (Gulag) system form 1930 in order to incorporate it into the economy- by early 1950's around 1/3 of the USSR's gold is mined there
      - During the Yezhovshchina (The Great Purge, 1937-38) around 1.5 million mean are arrested by NKVD; of these around 635,000 are deported and over 680,000 executed
      - In 1942 Beria (head of NKVD) organises the deportation of Kalmyks to Siberia; only 53,000 of original population of 130,000 survive, In 1944, 460,000 Chechens deported; 170,000 die
      - ART AND CULTURE
      - Establishment of Union of Soviet Writers (1932) and development of Social Realism
      - Creation of sculpture 'The Worker and the Collective Farm Woman' (1937)
      - Fedor Shurpin's painting 'Morning of Our Motherland' (1949) represents the USSR as a utopia and credits Stalin for transforming the country; the film 'The Fall of Berlin is released the same year
  - - - Desire for full, compulsory employment
      - Low female representation in the Party
      - Emphasis on reducing illiteracy
    - - Reduced emphasis on social welfare
      - More conservative policies on sexuality
      - Traditional, non-polytechnic education
    - - SOCIAL SECURITY
      - In 1930 the gov’t announces it is the first to achieve full employment during peacetime, but in light of this development the previous provision of unemployment benefit is cancelled
      - In 1930 average family kommunalka = 5.5 square metres; by 1940 average = 4 square metres.
      - From 1932 internal passports are introduced to stem the flow of workers changing jobs
      - By 1933 most Soviet citizens have access to electricity: a success of the Five-Year Plans
      - In 1939 absenteeism is made into a criminal offence that could lead to imprisonment
      - 1940-50, infant mortality declines by 50%; number of medical doctors increase by 2/3s, 1947-52
      - During 1941-45 approximately 1/3 of housing destroyed; exacerbates the housing shortages
      - By 1945, some 800,000 women had served in combat roles during World War Two
      - Industrial workforce increases from 8 million to 12.2 million during 1945-50
      - During 1945-50, 4,500 farming villages were built; 919,000 houses constructed or renovated
      - WOMEN AND THE FAMILY
      - By 1928, still only 12% of Party members are women; now emphasis placed on maternal role
      - By 1930 around 28% of university students = women; only 12% in Germany, 20% in Britain
      - 1936: abortion criminalised; contraception banned; ‘medical virginity checks’ introduced; these measures are part of the ‘Great Retreat’ which is marked by conservative attitudes
      - By 1940, 13 million women work in Soviet industry, constituting 41% of industrial workforce
      - In 1944 a tax is introduced on single people in order to encourage them to get married
      - EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE
      - University enrolments increase from 170,000 (1927) to 500,000 (1932) and 812,000 (1940)
      - New standards of class discipline are introduced in 1932 and national examinations in 1935
      - Places for women in higher/technical education up from 20% to 40% during 1929-1940
      - By 1939 over 94% of Soviet citizens are literate: 97% of men but only 90% of women
      - By 1939 approx. 1.5 million completed secondary education compared to just 216,000 in 1928
- - - - Desire to end the use of terror
      - Intent to reform party and state
      - More focus on improving citizens' lives
    - - USSR now a superpower (since 1945)
      - Continuation of the single-party state
      - Party (Khrushchev based) had key role
    - - Khrushchev's leadership rival, Beria, begins reform of Gulag system and rehabilitations (1953)
      - However, as head of MVD (secret police), Beria still feared: is arrested and executed (1953)
      - As secretary of CC, Khrushchev replaces half of regional secretaries and 44% of the CC (1953-56 )
      - Khrushchev decentralises power, reducing central Soviet ministries from 55 to 25 (1954)
      - Criticism of Stalin's cult of personality at secret session of 20th Party Congress (1956)
      - Following Secret Speech, 51,439 prisoners (including 26,155 'politicals') released from Gulags: in total some 2 million political prisoners are released from the camps during 1953-60
      - Khrushchev backtracks, announcing at the end of 1956 that all communists are 'Stalinists'
      - Party membership increases from 6.9 million in 1954 to 11 million in 1956
      - Fixed terms introduced- 2/3s of regional secretaries and Presidium replaced during 1957-61
      - Khrushchev assumes the role of Prime Minister in order to consolidate power (1958)
      - 22nd Party Congress (1961) sees renewed de-Stalinisation and fixed terms for all CC members
      - 1962 Party reforms sees half become responsible for industry and other half for agriculture
      - Khrushchev heavily criticised and forced to retire (October 1964) he lives until 1971
  - - - Belief maintained in collectivisation
      - Emphasis still on Industrial planning
      - Cold War required military spending
    - - More emphasis on incentivising farmers
      - More emphasis on light industry
      - Party divided into industry and agriculture
    - - 1953: Virgin Lands schemes sees agricultural investment rise from under 3% of the budget to 12.8% of the budget, 1954-9; farmed land increased from 18.2 million to 97.4 million hectares (1953-64)
      - 1954: reduced quotas and higher prices for surplus lead to 250% rise in farm incomes (1952-6)
      - 1954-5: More spending on tractors and fertilizers= 30% and 40 increases respectively
      - Overall agricultural production up 35.3%, 1953-8, due largely to Virgin Lands Scheme
      - Sovnarkhoz reforms February 1957) decentralise power from Gosplan to 105 regional planning agencies, but during 1958-64 confusion arises between roles of central bodies and sovnarkhor
      - Corn campaign launched from September 1958; farmers in Ukraine encouraged to grow maize (corn), with wheat production shifted to Virgin Lands- this fails as maize farms produce only 50% of similar farms in the USA while reduced hay production reduces animal feed by 30%.
      - Investment in agriculture cut from 12.8% (1954-9) to 2% in 1960 as military spending grows from 9.1% (1958) to 11% (1964) due to increased Cold War tensions; growth slows, 1960-64
      - Launch of the Seven-Year Plan (January 1959) with emphasis on light Industry: 60% increase in consumer goods (5% below target) 19 million ton increase in fertilizer (3.5 million** below target)
      - Seven-Year Plan (1959-65) = also increase of synthetic fibres by 241,000 tons; increase from 5 televisions per 1000 citizens in 1955 to 80 per 1000 citizens in 1966
  - - - State control over censorship continues
      - Some aspects of leadership cult persist
      - Criticism of Leninism forbidden
    - - Renunciation of mass terror
      - More consistent anti-religious campaign
      - Greater freedoms permitted in arts
    - - MEDIA AND CULT OF PERSONALITY
      - Khrushchev's appoints his son-in-law, Alexi Adzhubei, to be editor of Izvestia
      - Under Khrushchev a culture of consumer magazines develops as part of the new consumer society eg Rabotnitsa which prints women's letters; Krokidil, with funny satires about men
      - 1958: Cult of personality develops around Khrushchev, linked to space and agricultural success
      - 1961: USSR's first TV news show, News and Mail, broadcasts about model workers; the news clips and films such as 'The cranes are flying (1957) emphasise ordinary Soviet citizens
      - RELIGION
      - From 1958 Khrushchev begins to close churches that had been reopened in World War 2
      - Numbers of Orthodox Churches reduced from 8,000 to 5,000 (1958-64) due to KGB
      - Roman Catholic monasteries are closed down during 1959 and Orthodox convents are monitored
      - Anti-religious magazines are introduced, such as 'science as religion'
      - SECRET POLICE
      - 1953 Beria's execution three months after Stalin's death marks end of terror against the Party
      - 1959: Khrushchev declares there are no longer any political prisoners, only those of 'unsound mind'
      - ART AND CULTURE
      - Publication of Ehrenburg's The Thaw (1954) marks start of more liberal approach to culture
      - Pasternak's 'Doctor Zhivago' (1957) banned, revealing the limitations of Khrushchev's Thaw
      - Publication of Solzhenitsyn's 'One day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich' (1962); critical of Stalin
      - Khrushchev makes a notorious outburst at the Manege-gallery exhibition of nonconformist art (1962), claiming that a 'donkey could smear better art with its tail'
      - Denunciation and imprisonment of the poet Joseph Brodsky (1963-64) for social parasitism
  - - - Continued emphasis on full employment
      - Gender inequalities in the workplace
      - Continued expansion of education
    - - Greater emphasis on standards of living
      - More liberal policies towards women
      - Return to polytechnic education
    - - SOCIAL SECURITY
      - The Soviet healthcare budget increases from 21.4 billion roubles to 44 billion (1950-59).
      - 1950-65: death rates down from 9.7 per thousand to 7.3 per thousand; infant mortality rates down from 81 per thousand to 27 per thousand; pensions budget quadruples and housing provision doubles during the same period, showing new emphasis on living standards.
      - Overall, state spending on welfare provision increases five-fold between 1950 and 1980
      - A minimum wage is introduced in 1956 in a return to the provisions of the Workers’ Decree
      - Early 1960s: development of Khrushchyovkas: apartments 10 times bigger than kommunalka
      - 1961: introduction of free lunches in schools/factories; free public transport; full pensions
      - Food-price increases in 1962 lead to riots in Novocherkassk; the clampdown led to 70 deaths
      - WOMAN AND THE FAMILY
      - By 1955 49% of the Soviet workforce are women, but promotions rare; under Khrushchev
        45% of industrial jobs go to women, but mainly in lower-skill, low-pay jobs in light industry
      - Abortion legalised (1955); state-paid maternity leave up from 77 days to 112 days (1956).
      - In 1957 Ekaterina Furtseva becomes the first woman to become a full member of the leading organ of the Party, the Presidium (formerly the Politburo). She is also Minister of Culture
      - Of 6,400 women recruited to Virgin Lands Scheme in Aug. 1958, fewer than 450 find work in well-paid professional jobs; recruitment drives focus on young women (c.25) to start families
      - 1963: Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space – a new woman hero
      - EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE
      - 1953-64: investment means teacher numbers increase from 1.5 million to 2.2 million whilst proportion of university-educated teachers increases from 19% to 40%
      - 1956: abolition of fees for students attending secondary school and university
      - In 1956 History examinations have to be cancelled following the revelations by Khrushchev
      - Reintroduction of polytechnic education in 1956, with greater emphasis on science and maths.
      - December 1959 Education Law: compulsory education for 7-15-year-olds; places greater emphasis on vocational training for 16-19-year-olds, including in factories and on farms
      - By 1962 only 65% of schools complied with requirement to provide courses to the age of 19
- - - - Emphasis on restoration, not on reform
      - Emphasis on preserving the status quo
      - 'Stability of cadres', not limited terms
    - - Continued rejection of mass terror
      - The USSR was still a superpower
      - Party still the main source of mass terror
    - - 1964-70: government led by Brezhnev as General Secretary of Communist Party and Kosygin as Premier- the top jobs thus divided and government posts split between supporters of each man
      - 1964: re-establishment of the centralised all-union ministries abolished by Khrushchev
      - 1964: Ending of the split within the Party between industrial and agricultural wings
      - 'Stability of Cadres': During 1964-71, only two people are promoted to the Politburo
      - Between 1966* and 1971, 80-90%** of CC members retain their jobs following Congresses
      - There is so little discussion at the 23rd Congress (1966) that it becomes known as the 'Congress of silences': the presidium once again becomes known as the Politburo
      - The crushing of the Prague Spring in August 1968 marks the end of the era of reform
      - Article 6 of the 1977 Constitution establishes the superiority of the Party over the state
      - By 1982, the average age of the Politburo members was 75 (up from 58 in 1966): gerontocracy
      - In November 1982 Andropov becomes the leader, replacing a quarter of the senior officials
      - New leader Chernenko (72 and already ill) uses a stair-lift to get to the top of the Lenin's tomb
  - - - Much emphasis given to consumer goods
      - Necessity of high military spending
      - Maintained the command economy
    - - Party split (industry/ agriculture) ended
      - Far less emphasis placed on reform
      - Emphasis on developed socialism
    - - Military spending increases: 11% of the GDP in 1964 to 13% of the GDP in 1970 to 17% of the GDP in 1985**
      - Return to Five-Year Plans in 1966 following end of Khrushchev's Seven Year Plan
      - 1965-8 Short-lived Kosygin reforms aimed at diverting money from inefficient collective farms to light industry and empowering factory managers; reforms ended to to Prague Spring
      - Problems creating intensive growth as opposed to extensive growth in industry lead to declining Soviet growth rates 5.3% during 1958-64 but only 2% in the 1970s
      - In the 1970's, rising oil prices mask economic problems: oil production increases from 243 million tons in 1965 to 603 million tons in 1980 This enables the USSR to continue importing grain from the West (40 million tons from the USA in early 1980's and maintain standards of living. However, during 1981-85 the price of oil falls from $70 a barrel to just $20 per barrel
      - During the ninth five year plan (1971-75) growth of consumer goods is higher than heavy industry; in1973 major industrial complexes are joined with scientific research institutions.
      - However during the Brezhnev years 18% of economic resources are absorbed by the military-industrial complex, due largely to the conflicts in Africa, Afghanistan and elsewhere
      - From 1982 the new leader of Andropov initiates three campaigns: an anti-corruption campaign against senior Party officials and industrial managers; an anti-alcohol campaign, which allowed workers to be sacked from drunkenness; **Operation Trawl, an anti-drunkenness and anti-absenteeism campaign led by the KGB. The anti-alcohol campaign reduced tax revenue.
  - - - No return to mass terror of Stalin
      - Emphasis on the new consumer society
      - Low-level, unsuccessful leadership cult
    - - Clamp down on artistic freedoms
      - More tolerant attitude towards religion
      - Greater role for the secret police (KGB)
    - - MEDIA AND CULT PERSONALITY
      - Among other things, Brezhnev's cult of personality focusses on his role as 'military hero' from World War 2, but his promotion to Marshal and award of 100+ medals creates cynicism
      - In 1979 Brezhnev is awarded the Lenin Prize for Literature for his ghost-written memoirs
      - State television censored so as not to reveal bad news from the war in Afghanistan (1979)
      - By 1983 the party newspaper Pravda has circulation of 10.3 million; a means of propaganda
      - By 1985, 450 Western magazines are available on the black market, styagism culture
      - RELIGION
      - 1968; Creation of Institute for Scientific Atheism; bid to spread atheism, not attack religion; but, proportion of population claiming religiosity remained at 20% during 1960-85
      - Establishment of Spiritual Board of Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan
      - In 1979 Father Yakunin is sentenced to 5 years in prison for anti-Soviet propaganda
      - SECRET POLICE
      - 1967: Andropov becomes head of KGB: aims to gain maximum control with minimum violence
      - Issue of KGB Order No.0051 in 1968 sets out programme of surveillance against dissidents
      - Start of mass expansion of 'psychiatric treatment' of dissidents (7,000-8,000) from April 1969
      - Mass emigration of dissidents encouraged by Andropov: over 100,000 allowed to emigrate
      - Signing of Helsinki Accords on humans right (1975) gives greater hope to dissidents, but they are suppressed, with around 10,000 political prisoners incarcerated during mid-1970's**
      - ART AND CULTURE
      - Arrest (1965) and 'Show Trail' (1966) of 'dissident' authors Sinyavsky and Daniel
      - The great novelist Solzhenitsyn is expelled from the USSR in 1974
      - The Bulldozer Exhibition (September 1974)- KGB attacks on nonconformist artist, such as Rabin
      - Sakharov publishes 'Reflections on Progress (1968) and 'My Country and the World (1975), leading to internal exile in the city Gorky (1980), where he cannot even use a telephone
  - - - Emphasis on raising standards of living
      - Expansion of education for women
      - Increasing standards among teachers
    - - Aim = stability, not Communism by 1980
      - More conservative policies on women
      - Return to focus on academic education
    - - SOCIAL SECURITY
      - From 1964 Brezhnev focusses on the ‘social contract’ or ‘Little Deal’, meaning that living standards & social benefits would increase in return for obedience & conformity from people
      - 1964-82: social contract = job security/full employment; low prices for essential goods; thriving second economy; free health care; spending on health & pensions up 4-5% per year
      - 1970s: hidden unemployment of around 20% - people employed but not doing useful jobs
      - 1970s: infant mortality rates up from 3%-7%; life expectancy for men down from 68 to 64
      - By 1982 the average Soviet adult is consuming 18 litres of spirits per year
      - WOMEN AND THE FAMILY
      - In the mid-1960s, 74% of people employed in clerical positions in health/education = women.
      - Family Code 1968: makes it illegal to divorce a pregnant women or within a year of the birth.
      - By 1970, 72% of lowest-paid Soviet farmers are women as men seek jobs in industry.
      - From the mid-1970s pro-natal campaigns are launched to increase the birth rate.
      - From 1974 the recruitment campaign for bamovkas (in relation to the Baikul-Amur mainline) stresses traditional gender stereotypes: to start families & retain ‘delicate female features’.
      - Between 1956 & 1983 the proportion of women in the Party increases from 19.7% to 26%, but women never constitute more than 4% of the Central Committee in the same period
      - Official figures from 1982 show women spend twice as long on domestic chores as men
      - By 1985 around 70% of medical doctors & 75% of employees in universities are women.
      - EDUCATION AND YOUNG PEOPLE
      - 1964-6: restoration of focus on academic education; end of vocational training for 16-19s
      - During 1953-80 students in higher education up from 1.5 million to over 5 million (19% of pop).
      - By 1975 32,000 Soviet citizens have a doctorate, but those taking higher degrees in the Humanities are required to write a chapter showing how their work supports Marxism
      - By 1978 almost 70% of teachers have a university education; 18 new universities built in Central Asia