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Chapter 22-24 (Species (Alternative methods (Ecological Species Concept…

- - - - ecological niche is equal to the sum of members interaction with other living and non-living things around them
        
        look the same
    - - smallest group of organisms that share a common ancestor
        
        similar DNA
    - - species are defined by structural features
        
        they look the same
  - - - doesn't apply to asexual organisms
  - - - Types
        
        Temporal isolation
        
        species mate or feed during different times of the day or in different seasons, so they don't interact
        
        Habitat isolation
        
        species that live in the same geographic area live in different parts and never interacts with each other
        
        mechanical isolation
        
        species are physiologically unable to reproduce
        
        chihuahua and great dane
        
        Behavioral Isolation
        
        have unique mating ritual specific to that species only
        
        gametic isolation
        
        sea urchins release sperm/eggs into the water and it makes it difficult for the gametes from other species to fuse
      - Anything that prevents mating between different species
    - - Types
        
        reduced hybrid fertility
        
        parent species chromosomes differ in structure leading meiosis in the hybrid fail to produce normal gametes and are infertile
        
        reduced hybrid viability
        
        species in the same region will mate, but offsring don't develop completely or are frail
        
        hybrid breakdown
        
        first generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with other hybrids, offspring are infertile
      - prevents a hybrid zygote from developing into a fertile adult
  - - - population separated from exchanging genetic material with other organisms f the same species as the result of an accident or coincidence
    - - speciation by geographic isolation
      - examples
        
        river changes course, dividing the population of animals
        
        water level in lake falls, resulting in small lakes
        
        darwins finches, storm blew finches to different islands
        
        grand canyon squirrel
  - - - speciation within the same geographic region
    - - Autopolyploidy
        
        ex; two sperm fertilize one egg
        
        within the same species
      - Allopolyploidy
        
        ex; mule, liger cause by error in cell division
        
        has chromosome set with two or more sets derived from single species
      - extra set of chromosomes
      - more common in plants than animals because plants actually survive it
- - - - offspring by parents of different species
    - - can be caused by one population meeting with another because of their environments being done
      - hybrids can pass genetic material to parent species
      - ex; high altitude frogs mate with low altitude frogs
      - region which members of different species
      - reinforces barriers between diverging species
- - - - p + q= 1 / p^2+2pq+q^2=1
        
        p^2= frequency of homozygous dominant individuals
        
        2pq= frequency of heterozygous individuals
        
        q= frequency of recessive allele
        
        q^2= frequency of homozygous recessive individuals
        
        p = frequency of the dominant allele
  - - - population descends from small # of colonizing ancestors, resulting reduction of genetic diversity
      - Ex; Amish population, starting something new from small group
    - - Ex; endangered species trying to rebuild, used to exist
      - sudden change in environment may reduce size of population
    - - allele frequencies change by chance, population changes
      - Ex; random succession at birth results in all nut 1 hair color dissapearing in small village population
    - - transfer of alleles into or out of population
      - bee carrying pollen from one pop to another
  - - - ex; color, height, voice (meiosis), height, number of seeds
        
        Genetic DNA --> proteins
      - NOT genetic: body building, weight
        
        genetic variations after reproduction are not important or survival
        
        killed before puberty or problems past reproductive
    - - possible terms of a gene
      - we get new alleles by immigration, emigration, mutation
      - Sickle cell
        
        not harmful: neutral variation, mask, no protein
        
        Harmful: pick up harmful traits
      - Locus or loci
        
        specific place along the length of a chromosome where giving gene is reproductive
        
        occurs in meosis, chromosome swap pieces
    - - Meoisis
        
        cell division that takes place in gametes , production of sex cells , eggs and sperm
        
        haploid cells
        
        1/2 (23) = chromosome # reduced
      - Mitosis
        
        2 diplod cells
        
        chromosomes stays the same
  - - - contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals
    - - environment conditions in favor with our extreme phenotyp
      - environment is favoring phenotype
    - - conditions favor both ends of spectrums (spliting pop.)
    - - acts against both extreme phenotype
    - - individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to reproduce
      - Ex; peacocks "sexy traits"
    - - intrasexual
        
        one sex compete for mates
      - intersexual
        
        individual compare & pick
    - - recessive alleles persist
- - - - On the Origin of Species by means of natural selection
        
        developed and tested the idea of natural selection
      - The Origin of Species
        
        never used the word evolution
        
        descent with modification
    - - variation in every species
      - some variations better than others
      - members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
      - more offspring than environment can support
    - - over time, it can increase frequency of adaptations that are favorable in given environment
      - environment changes --> naturla selection may result in adaptation
      - process where individuals that have certain traits survive and reproduce
  - - - quite medicine school, became clergyman
      - HMS Beagle
        
        long voyage around the world
        
        Darwin spent most of his time studying plants and animals
      - Galapagos
        
        observed mockingbirds in this island
        
        insect -eater
        
        seed-eater
        
        cactus eater
        
        hypothesized that the island had been colonized by organisms that had stayed from SA and the divertisized
    - - Fossils
        
        remains of traces from organisms from the past
        
        many of them are found in sedimentary rock
        
        when water levels change and geological activity pushes layers of rock upward, strata and fossils exposed
        
        rivers carry sediment into aquatic habitats such as seas and swamps, overtime the strata form under water
      - Strata
        
        fossils in a particular stratum provide a glimpse of some the organisms that populated Earth at the time
      - Paleontology
        
        Charles Lyell
        
        same geologic processes are operating today as in the past and at the same rate
        
        Georges Cuvier
        
        he noticed that the the older stratum, the more dissimilar its fossils were to current life-forms
        
        James Hutton
        
        proposed that Earth's geologic features could be explained by gradual mechanisms
        
        Jean Baptiste Lamark
        
        evolutionary change explains patterns in fossils and the match of organisms to their environments
        
        use an disuse
        
        inheritance acquired characteristics
  - - - a descent with modification
        
        Analogous
        
        same function, different structure
        
        Vestigal
        
        structures that have lost all most it's functions
        
        Convergence
        
        process where by organism not related evolve similarly
        
        homologous
        
        same structure, different function
      - change in the genetic composition of a population from one generation ---> generation
      - related but two different ways
        
        Pattern
        
        revealed by data, biology, geology, physics, and chemistry
        
        these data are facts, observations that have been made, but have evolved over time
        
        Process
        
        evolution consists of mechanisms that cause patterns of change
        
        Mechanisms ---> natural causes of phenomena we observe
    - - Aristotle
        
        viewed species as fixed (unchanging)
        
        realized certain affinities
        
        life-forms could be arranged on a ladder, "scala of nature"
        
        his ideas were related to the Old Testament, species designed by God, which made them perfect
      - Carlous Linnaues
        
        classified life's diversity "for the greater glory of god"
        
        homo sapiens
        
        he adopted a classification system, grouping similar species into categories