Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Modules 45-54 (Module 48 (48.2 Attachment Differences: Temperament and…

- - - - stranger anxiety-
        the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 moths of age
      - Children who one year old tend to cling to their parents when they feel fear or anticipate separation, and then when they are reunited they are happy which demonstrates
        
        attachment-
        an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
        
        Psychologists used to think that infants became attached to people who provided for them and gave them nourishment, but Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow performed an experiment that disproved this
        
        The Harlows bred monkeys then separated the infant monkeys into different cages that contained a cheesecloth baby blanket. When the blanket was taken away, the infant monkeys were distressed.
        
        This led to the Harlows raising monkeys with 2 artificial mothers: one made out of bare wire and the other made terry cloth. The baby monkeys showed a huge preference for the latter which helped demonstrate that qualities like rocking, feeding and warmth contributed towards attachment
  - - - strange situation- a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves then returns, and the child's reactions are observed
      - Most infants play comfortably and happily in their new environment, and when their mother leaves they get upset, and when she returns they seek contact which illustrates
        
        secure attachment- demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver. show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return
        
        Other children are less willing to explore their new environment, and when their mother leaves they either cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent, which demonstrates
        
        insecure attachment- demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging anxious attachment, or an avoidant attachment that resits closeness
        
        That said, attachment style can also be heavily influenced by
        
        temperament- a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
        
        Identical twins more than fraternal twins often have similar temperaments, and it is shown that the genetic effect of temperament manifests in anxious infants who then have variable heart rates and a reactive nervous system
        
        Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, believed that securely attached children posses
        
        basic trust- according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
        
        Current researchers now believe that early attachments form the basis of our relationships in adulthood and how comfortable we are with affection and intimacy
        
        For example, children who report secure attachment with their parents tend to also have secure friendships
        
        1 more item...
    - - Infants who were extremely neglected or abused are often withdrawn. speechless, and frightened, and those who are raised within institutions without the proper attention from caregivers often feel the same way
        
        That said, most children who grow up experiencing adversity are resilient, meaning they are able to cope with the trauma and become well adjusted adults
        
        Unfortunately, many who experience abuse are not able to recuperate readily
        
        This can be seen with how a large majority of those who were abused as children have at least on psychiatric disorder and have greater odds of having anxiety, depression, and substance abuse disorder
  - - - self-concept- all our thoughts and feelings towards ourselves in answer to the question, "who am I?"
        
        Charles Darwin suggested that self awareness began when we were able to recognize ourselves within the mirror, and with experimentation it was determined that by 18 months infants have developed a schema for their own face
        
        Children's self concept further develops as they enter school age, and by age 8 or 10 their self image is relatively stable
  - - - Permissive parents are unrestraining- Too soft, parents submit to their children's desires. They make few demands and use little punishment.
      - Negligent parents are uninvolved- Too Uncaring, the parents needs and desires comes before the child's, the parents are unresponsive as well as undemanding of their child (which makes it hard to encourage them to do good), sometimes this type of parenting ends up in neglect of the child
      - Authoritative parents are confrontive- They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. And, especially with older children, they encourage discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions.
      - Authoritarian parents are coercive- Too hard, parents impose rules and expect obedience: "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so."
- - - - Currently, factors contributing to teen pregnancy include, alcohol use, lack of communication regarding birth control, media influence, and impulsivity
        
        On the other hand, factors that can lead to sexual restraint include the presence of a father figure, intelligence, and in general having more knowledge about sexual activity and its potential consequences
  - - - Condoms are the most common form of protection
        
        They are also effective at preventing the transmission of
        
        HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which can be the precursor to
        
        AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)- a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
  - - - Today, psychologists believe it is neither willfully chosen, or willfully changed
        
        There is also no substantial evidence that proves environment directly determines one's sexual orientation
        
        Instead, there is evidence that biology has a strong role in its determination, as can be seen with same sex attraction in animals, gay-straight differences in body and brain, higher rates of homosexuality in identical twins and certain families, along with the fraternal birth order effect
  - - - This then leads to the testicles producing
        
        testosterone- the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
    - - X chromosome- the sex chromosome found in both men and women. females have two x chromosomes; males have one. An x chromosome from each parent produces a female child
    - - There is a major increase in hormones which leads to drastic physical changes with
        
        primary sex characteristic- he body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
        
        secondary sex characteristic- nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
        
        There are also certain landmarks during puberty which are different for each sex
        
        For males, its spermache- the first ejaculation
        
        For females, its menarche- the first menstrual period
        
        Puberty and the psychical development that comes along with it can also be an even more confusing time for individuals who are
        
        intersex- a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy, possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes
- - - - identity- our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
        
        Peer influence can have a large impact on identity, which can lead to the adoption of the same style of dress, action, and mannerisms as the rest of a group
        
        Parents still have significant influence on an adolescent's religion, politics, and future career plans however
        
        Identity then leads to the formation of a
        
        social identity- the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
        
        Erikson also thought that after identity formation in adolescence, then came in adulthood the presence of
        
        intimacy- in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
        
        52.2 Parent and Peer Relationships
  - - - school age children desire competence
      - adolescents want to synthesize the past, present, and future possibilities into something that is more comprehensible
      - younger children struggle with issues of trust, then autonomy, and later initiative
  - - - emerging adulthood- for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
- - - - Nature and nurture
        
        Nature and nurture themselves don't form us but their
        
        interaction does (Biological, psychological and social cultural forces interact)
        
        Continuity and stages
        
        Everyone goes through the same life stages in the same orderbut still there is
        
        Stage theories which have been developed by individuals such as Jean Piaget (cognitive development) and Erik Erikson (psychological development) which propose developmental stages
        
        Stability and change
        
        Characteristics such as temperament are very stable
        
        Our personalities grow to be stable as well, but something that is not stable is our
        
        Social attitudes especially during adolescence since during those years new ways of coping can be learned, in combination with other factors
        
        Stability provides our identity which allows us depend on ourselves and one another, while change helps us with optimism which allows us to adapt and grow
      - developmental psychology- a branch of psychology that studies psychical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
  - - - zygotes- the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
        
        After 10 days, the germinal stage ends and the zygote's inner cells become the
        
        embryo- the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
        
        The outer cells of the zygote then become the placenta which
        provides nutrients from mother to embryo
        
        The placenta filters and scans many harmful substances although some that slip by are called
        
        tetratogens- agents such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
        
        This is one reason why pregnant women are advised not to do things like smoke or drink alcohol since the baby is exposed to the substances as well, and the effects can be seen with things like fetal alcohol syndrome
        
        2 more items...
        
        After 9 weeks the embryo looks like a human being and is called a fetus
        
        fetus- the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
- - - - schemas- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
        
        In order to elaborate on the concept of schemas, Piaget proposed that we first assimilate to our experiences, then learn to accommodate them to new information
        
        assimilation- interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
        
        accommodation- adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information
  - - - sensorimotor stage-in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
      - The phrase "out of sight, out of mind" can be applied to infants, and this is demonstrated through their lack of
        
        object permanence- the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
        
        Piaget thought that during the preoperational stage children also lacked a sense of conservation
        
        After the preoperational stage, when children are about age 7, Piaget thought children then entered the
        
        concrete operational stage- in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
        
        Beyond that, around the age of 12 most children finally enter the
        
        formal operation stage-in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
        
        conservation- the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
        
        preoperational stage- in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
        
        Piaget taught us that young children are
        
        egocentric- in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
        
        Although preschoolers are egocentric, they eventually start to develop a
        
        theory of mind- people's ideas about their own and other's mental states- about their feelings, perceptions and thoughts, and the behaviors they might predict
      - While Piaget was studying the cognitive development of children and focused on how a child's mind grows with interaction in the physical world, Lev Vygotsky was focusing on how a child develops with interactionin the social environment
        
        One concept that is important in regards to Vygotsky is that he gave children a
        
        scaffold- a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
    - - Autism spectrum disorder diagnoses has been increasing, yet the amount of children diagnosed with learning and cognitive disabilities has decreased
        
        autism spectrum disorder-
        a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
        
        Regions in the brain that cooperate and allow us to understand someone else's perspective seem to have poor communication with people who have ASD, which leads to
        
        People with ASD being said to have "an impaired theory of the mind" and being bullied at a rate 11 times more than other children
        
        Biology is seen to have a role is ASD as shown with
        
        Twin studies that illustrate that if one identical twin has autism, the other twin has a 50-70% chance of having ASD as well
- - - - Men and women are also comparable in regards to intelligence, creativity, and emotions yet one major aspect that men and women differ is with aggression
        
        aggression- any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
        
        Worldwide, more men than women commit violent crimes and support things like war, while when it comes to things like group exclusion and hurtful gossip women are more likely to engage in
        
        relational aggression- an act of aggression intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing
        
        There are also no discernable differences in brain scans between men and women, although it is noted that it seems that women's brains are wired in a way that enables social relationships, which helps explain why females are more interdependent than men
    - - Culture affects our behavior by defining what is socially acceptable is a particular situation, social position or role
        
        role- a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
        
        This shaping power can then also be expressed in
        
        gender roles- a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females
        
        A gender role delineates how our peers expect us to think, feel, and act, while our gender identity is our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two
        
        In order to answer the question how do we develop that personal viewpoint, we look to
        
        the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
        
        Some critics believe there is more to gender identity though because of the fact that gender typing varies from child to child
        
        2 more items...
- - - - Adolescence begins with going through
        
        puberty- the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
        
        That said, the timing of puberty is not a specific set date, and the time that it will begin for boys and girls will differ on an individual level
        
        For boys
        
        early maturation has mixed effects
        
        For girls
        
        early maturation can be challenging
        
        On top of that, girls in numerous countries are going through puberty earlier than in the past, which can most likely be caused by increased body fat, increased hormones, and increased stress that is caused by familial troubles
        
        During puberty, the teenage brain is still not fully developed
        
        The frontal lobes become fully developed at age 25, and the frontal lobes along will myelin grow during adolescence which then improves judgement, impulse control, and long term planning
  - - - This led to Lawrence Kohlberg to propose a stage theory that revolved around the progression of moral reasoning, starting with a preconventional morality of self interest, to a conventional morality revolving around laws and social rules, to potentially postconventional state of thinking based upon universal ethical principles
        
        Some believe that morality instead comes from moral intuition and action while others also criticize Kohlberg for having his stages come predominantly from the perspective on an individualistic society
- - - - These neural connections are then strengthened by experiences that use sight, smells, touch, and taste, or they can diminish from disuse, which is referred to as a pruning process
        
        That said, during the early childhood years there is important brain development, but due to neural plasticity the brain still changes itself all throughout life in response to different life experiences and learning
    - - Parenting does matter because parental expectations in combination with family environment can affect children's motivation and future successes
        
        That said, personality can be mostly attributed to factors other than parental nurture
        
        When children try to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt things like habits, accents, and slang
        
        Parents can have control over peer group influence by choosing their children's schools and neighborhoods
- - - - Fertility is also negatively impacted by aging
        
        For women, it means that they go through menopause- the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
        
        For men, it means there is a decrease in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of ejaculation and erection
    - - In regards to memory, aging contributes to our ability to recall declining, but our ability for recognition stays relatively strong
        
        Two types of studies can be performed in order to study how aging impacts our memory:
        
        cross sectional study- research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
        
        longitudinal study- research that follows and retests the same people over time
    - - Neurocognitive disorders (NCDs) are acquired disorders marked by cognitive deficits
        
        They are often related to
        
        Alzheimer's Disease- a NCD marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilties
        
        Neurocogntive disorders can also revolve around brain injury or disease, or substance abuse**
        
        Before, neurocognitve disorders were called dementia in elderly adults
    - - Unlike children and adolescents, adults do not progress through orderly life sequences/stages
        
        Instead, chance events and encounters can impact life decisions
        
        As a consequence, there is no substantial evidence that adults have distress that peaks during mid life/ a midlife crisis
        
        There is evidence of a
        
        social clock- the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
    - - It was once thought that grieving happened in predictable stages, but contemporary research finds that not to be true
        
        Bereavement therapy and strong expressions of grief may not rid someone of their negative feelings, or be more effective than just going through the emotions as they come
        
        Integrity versus despair was the psychological task that Erikson thought was applicable to late adulthood
    - - As we go through life/ the lifespan, our sense of identity in combination with our self confidence seems to increase and strengthen
        
        After midlife for example, positive emotions increase while negative emotions decrease
        
        Aging also results in less extreme emotions being expressed
- - - - maturation- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
        
        Maturation accounts for many of our similarities
        
        Maturation sets the basic framework for development, while nurture shapes it
    - - braincells you could ever posses
    - - Before the age of 4, we can recall little of our memories
        
        This is caused by rapid neuron growth, which then disrupts neural pathways that would allow us to recall the memories
        
        As children growth and develop, this phenomen of infantile amnesia graudually goes away
        
        This means that over time we grow to be more capable of remembering experiences, for longer periods of time