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Learning (Behaviorism (Thorndike (Law of effect: Responses just before a…

- - - - https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
  - - - Is the fear retained overtime?
      - Can the fear be attributed to similar objects or animals?
      - Can a child become conditioned to fear something?
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI
      - Purpose: To determine if normal defence mechanisms and disorders could be understood by the basis of conditioning.
    - - Fear persists in forms or objects that are similar to the original object.
      - Fear can be conditioned when an object is paired with an unpleasant stimulus.
  - - - “A combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its on recurrence tend to be followed by that movement"
        
        When learning occurs, it is the result of exactly one trial of specific stimuli being associated with a specific response. It doesn't always appear to be learned in one go because the exact circumstance can never be replicated.
    - - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OivMwnJaBA8
    - - Principles
        
        In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things).
        
        Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must present very specific tasks.
        
        The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that will be associated.
      - According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a particular stimulus and response
      - Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response
  - - - Grew up in New York City and was later the president of APA
    - - Hypothetical variables interfered with input and output. Input variables can be described as predictors or stimulus variables that are independent variables in an experiment. output variables can be described as the responses.
        
        Intervening variables can be looked at as providing reinforcement, activating habit strength, and allowing stimuli to be attached to responses.
        
        Along with Thorndike and Skinner popularized the idea of reinforcement.
        
        Felt their was an explanation for reinforcement. Reinforcement was drive reduction and drive is a powerful urge. Felt their were ways to reduce a drive by attaining a goal called goal reaction
  - - - Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior.
- - - - "When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased." "This is often paraphrased as 'Neurons that fire together wire together.' It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law"
        http://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3902
    - - "This is often paraphrased as 'Neurons that fire together wire together.' It is commonly referred to as Hebb's Law.
        "The combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit, Hebb referred to as 'cell-assemblies'. And their combination of connections made up the ever-changing algorithm which dictated the brain's response to stimuli.
        http://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3902
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9K6GDBnByk
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2h-pV9rXm8
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCfCn1277AA
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYll_hddTEs
  - - - Cognitive Map: internal representation of external environmental feature
  - - - Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization
  - - - humans survived because we have big brains. Big brains allowed for culture, which allowed intelligence, language and the mind
      - We use categories to make sense of the world.
      - Instinctive Drift occurs when an instinct takes control over conditioned behaviors and the instinctive ones become more prominent even in association with the stimulus. For instance raccoons being conditioned to deposit coins into a bank, then offered food as a reward which they then instinctively wash. Eventually they stop depositing the coins and start instinctively washing them instead.
      - AutoShaping
        
        AutoShaping is normally used in classical conditioning. The reinforcer is paired with a stimulus that is independent of the subject’s behavior until the subject makes a response to the stimulus. Basically, food comes irrespective of the behavior of the animal. If reinforcement were occurring, random behaviors should increase in frequency because they should have been rewarded by random food. Instinctive drift is when any species, reverts back to an unconscious and automatic behavior that interferes with anything learnt in operant conditioning or responses that go along with it.
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cacwAvgg8EA
    - - Believed that as children travel from birth to adolescence, they progress through 4 qualitatively different stages of intellectual growth
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA&vl=en
        
        Formal Operations (12+ years)- Full cognitive potential has been reached. Child begin to logically test hypotheses.
        
        Concrete Operations (8-12 years)- thinking is on the same wavelength as adults. A child begin to think rather than participate.
        
        Preoperations (2-7 years)- when children realize what they see is real. Young children star thinking symbolically (assigning meaning to something)
        
        Sensorimotor (0-2 years)- manipulates objects to pin down the basics of physical reality. Ex: I can roll a ball, but not a block...
        
        Intellectual growth is viewed as an adaptation to the world. Adaptation occurs through assimilation and accommodation.
        
        Assimilation- mental growth occurs as we fit the world to our capacities. I.E: How I view the world
        
        Accommodation- We naturally change our thinking to fit the world
        
        Piaget
        
        https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRF27F2bn-A
        
        Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations.
      - Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
        
        Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
        
        Age (years) Stage Description Developmental issues
        
        0–2 Sensorimotor World experienced through senses and actions Object permanence
        
        Use senses and motor skills, explore the world using their ability to move. Develop object permanence and understand that the concept and mental images represent objects, people, and events.
        
        Stranger anxiety- a typical part of the developmental sequence that most children experience. It can occur even if the child is with a caregiver or another person they trust. It peaks from six to 12 months but may recur afterwards until the age of 24 months.
        
        2–6 Preoperational Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning Pretend play
        
        refer to events and objects with words or pictures and also have the ability to pretend. Yet they can't conserve. logically reason, or simultaneously consider many characteristics of an object.
        
        Egocentrism- The term egocentric is a concept that originated within Piaget's theory of childhood development. Egocentrism refers to someone's inability to understand that another person's view or opinion may be different than their own. It represents a cognitive bias, in that someone would assume that others share the same perspective as they do, unable to imagine that other people would have a perception of their own.
        
        Language development
        
        7–11 Concrete operational Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations Conservation
        
        Mathematical transformations
        
        12– Formal operational Formal operations
        
        Utilize abstract reasoning
        
        Abstract logic- a formal system consisting of a class of sentences and a satisfaction relation with specific properties related to occurrence, expansion, isomorphism, renaming and quantification.
        
        The abstract reasoning test is also called the conceptual reasoning test. It measures your lateral thinking skills or fluid intelligence, which are your ability to quickly identify patterns, logical rules and trends in new data, integrate this information, and apply it to solve problems.
        
        Moral reasoning- a thinking process with the objective of determining whether an idea is right or wrong. To know whether something is "right" or "wrong" one must first know what that something is intended to accomplish.
        
        Object permanence : understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived
    - - The Role of Culture: there is a relationship between language and thought
        3 stages of Language Development:
        Social Speech
        Egocentric
        Inner Speech
- - - - https://explorable.com/aristotles-psychology
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ
      - Aristotle famously rejected Plato's theory of forms, which states that properties such as beauty are abstract universal entities that exist independent of the objects themselves. Instead, he argued that forms are intrinsic to the objects and cannot exist apart from them, and so must be studied in relation to them.