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COGNITIVE APPROACH (EMOTION AND COGNITION (Emotion and memory (Encoding…

- - - - In primary appraisal, we consider how the situation affects our personal well-being
      - In secondary appraisal we consider how we might cope with the situation.
    - - :heavy_plus_sign: first theory to link emotion to cognitive processes
      - ::heavy_minus_sign: emotion can occur without cognition
      - ::heavy_minus_sign: more recent explanations see emotion and cognition as being controlled by separate systems
  - - - Cue-utilization theory argues that high levels of emotion focus attention mainly on the emotionally arousing elements of the environment, so that these elements become encoded in memory rather than non-emotionally arousing ones.
      - In 1987, Loftus et al found that if a person is carrying a weapon, a witness focuses more on the weapon than the person's face, negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of the person. This supports the idea that emotion affects the encoding of memories by focusing attention on the emotionally arousing elements.
    - - Emotional arousal can make memories longer lasting.
    - - Mood-state dependent retrieval concerns the ability of individuals to retrieve information more easily when their emotional state at the time of recall matches their emotional state at the time of encoding.
      - Mood-congruence effect concerns the ability of individuals to retrieve information more easily when its emotional content matches their current emotional state.
    - - There is little support for this idea. Research suggests that "recovered" memories are merely false reconstructions based on a therapist's suggestions.
- - - - Articulatory process (AP) allows sub-vocal repetition of information within the store
      - Primary acoustic store (PAS) stores heard words
      - Trojani & Grossi (1995) reported a case study of SC, who had brain damage affecting the functioning of his PLL, but not his VSS, suggesting the PL to be a separate system.
    - - Alkhalifa (2009) reported on a patient with severely impared LTM, whose STM capacity far exceeded the capacity of both the PL and the VSS. This suggests the existence of an EB, which holds items in working memory until they are recalled.
    - - Inner scribe (IS) stores information about the physical relationship of items
      - Visual cache (VC) stores information about colour and form
      - Gathercole & Baddeley (1993) found that participants had difficulty simultaneously performing 2 tasks that both involved using the VSS. Other participants had little difficulty in simultaneously performing tasks that involved using the VSS and the PLL, indicating the VSS to be a separate slave system.
    - - more comprehensive than the MSM :heavy_plus_sign:
      - explains execution of everyday tasks :heavy_plus_sign:
      - considerable evidence for PL, VSS, and EB, but not for CE :heavy_plus_sign: / :heavy_minus_sign:
      - does not include SM and LTM :heavy_minus_sign:
      - unable to explain accelerations in processing ability :heavy_minus_sign:
      - racist?
  - - - Chunking: method of increasing STM capacity by grouping information into larger untis
      - Baddeley (1996) found that participants had trouble accurately recalling sequences of similar-sounding words shortly after seeing them. This suggests that coding in STM is mainly acoustic.
    - - Explicit memory (conscious)
        
        Episodic memory (events)
        
        Semantic memory (facts)
      - Implicit memory (unconcious)
        
        Procedural memory (performance of actions)
      - Baddeley (1966) found that participants had trouble accurately recalling sequences of similar-meaning words 20 minutes after seeing them. This suggests that coding in LTM is mainly semantic.
      - Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neural connections in the human brain is 1 followed by 10.5 million km of noughts. This suggests that the capacity of LTM is limitless.
    - - Iconic store
        
        Walsh & Thompson (1978) found that the iconic store has an average duration of 500 msec, which decreases as individuals get older. This suggests duration of sensory memories is limited and dependent of age.
      - Echoic store
      - Haptic store
      - Gustatory store
      - Olfactory store
      - Crowder (1993) found that SM only retains information in the iconic store for a few msec, but for 2 to 3 sec within the echoic store. This supports the idea of sensory information being encoded into different sensory stores of different durations.
    - - Visually (by thinking of the image of smt)
      - Semantically (through meaning)
      - Acoustically (by repeatedly saying smt)
    - - :heavy_plus_sign: considerable evidence for separate memory systems
      - :heavy_minus_sign: oversimplified
      - :heavy_minus_sign: too much focus on structure and not enough on processes
      - :heavy_plus_sign: the first cognitive explanation, influential
      - :heavy_plus_sign: supported by case studies of amnesia
- - - - Optic flow patterns: unambiguous sources of information that directly inform perception.
      - Affordances: the quality of objects that permits actions to be carried out on them.
      - Texture gradient: surface patterns that provide sensory information about objects.
        .
  - - - (Allport and Postman, 1947). Many participants recalled seeing the black man holding the knife, as that fits the cultural stereotype.
- - - - Heuristics are decision-making shortcuts that focus on one aspect of a problem while ignoring others.
        
        Satisficing stategy for decisions (SSD) : each option is considered in terms of whether all (perceived) important aspects meet a minimum level.
        
        Majority of confirming decisions (MCD): options are considered in pairs, with "winning" options compared and "losers" rejected.
        
        Lexographic strategy (LEX): the option with the best value of the (perceived) most important aspect is chosen.
        
        Elimination by aspects (EBA): options that don't meet a minimum level of important aspects are rejected.
        
        In 2002, Schwartz et al. reported that satisficers were people who will select the first option that is "good enough", and rarely regret their decision when encountered with a better option. In contrast, maximizers were people who took their time to choose the best possible option and were often anxious about making a choice. This suggests that decision-making style is related to individual differences in personality.
      - Role of emotions and goals
        
        Problem-focused coping is aimed at making the best choice while avoiding being influenced by negative emotions.
        
        Emotion-focused coping is aimed at minimizing negative emotions, while neglecting the quality of decision-making.
- - - - Misleading information/questions, which suggest a desired answer
      - Post-event information: misleading information added to an event after it has occurred