social identity
collective or group identities applied to important roles. Cultures classify, group and give meaning to broad identities, such as male or female, that define how "men" and "women" are generally expected to behave.
class
gender
ethnicity
Crompton
occupation is a good general indicator that can allow us to define simple class groupings, such as working, middle and upper class
occupation can also suggest ways in which class identities develop out of different work-related experiences
class groupings
lower class
middle class
upper class
general information
Crompton
Goldthorpe et al.
Devine
traditional working-class identities are fixed around manual work and the manufacturing industry,
largely urban and close-knit communities
the "working-class Self" and the "middle/upper-class Other" reinforces their cultural belief through personal experiences and socialization
class identity was built around BOTH what people believe themselves to be and what they were not
changes to the nature of work
a decline in traditional manufacturing industries
a rise of service industries
the emergence of a new working class which develops new forms of identity
privatized or home-centred
instrumental: work was a means to an end-the creation of a comfortable home and family life
there were still important differences between the new working class and the middle classes e.g. the former retained a sense of "being working class"
middle-class identities are constructed around a range of occupational identities
professionals-high education achievement with personal autonomy and decision-making
managers involved in the day-to-day running of private and public companies
intellectuals-academic identity dealing with knowledge and information services
consultants-focused on selling knowledge, information and skills across both national and global markets
routine service workers e.g. shop assistants/ nursing
The blurring of class identities
upper-class identities are based on two major groupings
the landed aristocracy
historic ownership of land
political connections to the monarchy
the business elite-immense income and wealth
Self and Zealey
21% of the UK's total wealth is owned by the wealthiest 1% of its population
7% of the nation's wealth is owned by the least wealthy 50%
Davies et al.
the world's richest 1% own 40% of the total global wealth
of this 1%, 60% live in just two countries: USA and Japan
Peele
recent global economic changes have resulted in "a blurring of traditional class identities"
we can see this in cultural changes in taste and consumption
a convergence of working-class and middle-class taste
Prandy and Lambert
there has been a gradual shift from people "seeing themselves as working class to middle class"
Savage
the meaning of class categories has changed- greater emphasis is placed on individual- woking class identity has become more varied-class identity is becoming increasingly fluid- based on someone's ability to choose who they want to be
Brooks
three general cultural themes that contribute to middle-class identity
not working-class
disgusted subjects
social capital- how people are connected to networks and the value these have for norms of reciprocity
Male identities
Crisis
Female identities
general information
Connell et al.
we become men and women through the social construction of gender identities
Lips
the differences in male and female identities do not occur naturally from biological differences
gender identities differ historically and cross-culturally, which means they are both learnt and relative
two forms of dominant gender identities
hegemonic masculinity
emphasized femininity
subordinate masculinity-unwilling/unable to perform hegemonic masculinity
subversive masculinity-challenges and undermines hegemonic masculinity
complicit masculinity-sees women as equals and occurs
marginalized masculinity-"pushed to the margins of family life" due to long-term unemployment
Benyon
contemporary global societies are experiencing a crisis of masculine identity caused by a combination of:
long-term unemployment
the loss of traditional male employment in manufacturing industries
lower educational achievement relative to girls
the rise of female-friendly service industries
results in the rise of two particular forms of exaggerated masculinity that try to reassert traditional forms of male identity
retributive masculinities
rigidly patriarchal
aggressive, both physically and verbally
oppositional
reclaimational
hypermasculinity
Wolf-Light
authoritarian and autocratic, impersonal, contemptuous and violent
particularly appeals to white, middle-class and middle-aged men
contingent femininities
are framed and shaped by male beliefs, behaviors and demands
normalized identities
sexualized identities
women learning to play a secondary role to men
Chambers et al.--- such identities continually struggle with the problem of "producing a femininity that will secure male approval"
are fashioned through male eyes and fantasies
assertive identities
reflect the changing position of women in many societies
women breaking free from traditional ideas about femininity, but not completely setting themselves apart from their male counterparts
Froyum-assertive femininities are are adopted to "resist male power without actually threatening to overthrow such power"
types of assertive identity
girl power identities
modernized femininities
ageing femininities
autonomous femininities
keep two things in the mind
ethnicity is not the same thing as race
avoid thinking about ethnicity in terms of minorities
ethnicity refers to a combination of cultural differences, in areas such as religion, family structures, beliefs, values, norms
Winston-ethnic identity develop when people see themselves as being distinctive in some way from others because of a shared cultural background and history
the key factor is whether people are conscious of belonging to the group
built on
country of birth & common geographic location
traditions and customs
shared histories and experiences
religious beliefs, celebrations and traditions
ethnic identities are negotiable, their nature and meaning can change to external and internal factors
Wimmer
an important aspect of ethnic identities is how they are defined in relation to other ethnic groups by constructing a sense of difference
another way in which ethnic identities can be imposed relates to how minority identities can be defined by major ethnicities in terms of otherness
two hybrid ethnic identities
conventional hybridisation
contemporary hybridisation
the mixing of distinctive ethnic styles produces new and unique identities
ethnic identities undergo constant maintenance, change and development
cause
immigration
cultural globalisation
ethnic identities are constantly drawing on new influences and re-establishing old identities in the face of new challenges