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Course Mind Map (Monohybrid Crosses (Mutations (Effects of the mutation…

- - - - two genes are on separate chromosomes, the allele of one gene move independently of the alleles of the other gene
    - - occurs between them during prophase 1
      - the farther apart two genes are the greater the possibility that crossing over will occur
    - - formed from crossing over of the homologous chromosomes and recombination of alleles
      - first two are parental type chromosomes
  - - - smallest mutation affecting the least amount of DNA
    - - A piece of DNA is lost
    - - Addition of extra DNA
      - Insertion Sequence
        
        few thousand base pairs long
        
        contains genes that code for enzymes involved in Cutting and sequence out and splicing it into DNA
    - - DNA becomes tangled/breaks and during repair its but in backwards
    - - Something that causes mutations
    - - like insertion sequence except that it may be much longer and carries genes that code for proteins not associated with transposition.
    - - effects and significance of mutation depend on its nature, position, and extent
      - Some may have no effects
      - point mutations/small insertions/small deletions
        
        appear to be unimportant generally
        
        not incorporated into mRNA
    - - mutations are almost always harmful
    - - mutation in a cell that never lead to sex cells
    - - contains DNA repair mechanisms that recognize and remove mutations
  - - - double helix is cut and the two strands separate
        
        form a small bubble
    - - Free nucleotides diffuse to single stranded DNA
        
        pair with its bases along stands
      - Called Ribonucleotides
        
        polymerized into short pieces.
      - approximately 10 nucleotides long
    - - acts as substrate
      - used for DNA-synthesizing enzyme
    - - method of replication
      - each stand of DNA acts as the template for making commentary strand
    - - DNA uncoils then separates
        
        has a forked appearance
    - - new pieces of DNA are ligated
        
        then attached to each other with covalent bond
  - - - alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to the progeny
    - - obtains all plastid/ mitochondrion genomes from maternal parent
      - aka maternal inheritance
    - - like male in a plant
    - - like female in a plant
    - - spots or sectors that are white/red/orange that otherwise green
    - - Presents can kill the plant
      - can be difficult to detect
    - - plants with more than two sets of chormosomes
    - - during the second division of meiosis, two chormomsome may fail to disjoin so daughter cell receives both copies
    - - mutation that is close enough to wild alleles they can be recognized as having originated as duplicates
    - - nucleus may have up to 600 paralogs instead of just tow for most traits.
- - - - small, corky, waxy
  - - - outermost surface
      - encrusted with cutin
        
        makes walls impermeable to water
      - cutin builds up a layer called cuticle
    - - interior to the epidermis
      - cortex cells fit together compactly
    - - has two types:
        
        Xylem
        
        Phloem
      - Diffusion throughout the body
    - - two types:
        
        tracheids
        
        refered to as tracheary element
        
        vessel elements
      - must stop dividing
      - secondary wall reinforces primary wall
        
        cell dies
      - annular thickening
        
        rings for movement of water
      - vessel elements
        
        entire stack of bundles
    - - two types
        
        sieve cells
        
        refered to as sieve elements
        
        sieve tube membrane
      - must remain alive to conduct
      - has pores
    - - Xylem and Phloem occur together as vascular bundle
      - surround pith
      - vascular bundles always collateral
        
        has both xylem and phloem
  - - - only have primary walls that remain thin
      - Chlorenchyma cells
        
        parenchyma cell involved in photosynthesis
        
        numerous chloroplast
      - Glandular cells
        
        contain few chloroplast
        
        transport sugars& minerals
        
        produces parenchyma cells
      - transfer cells
        
        mediate short distances
        
        increase surface area with knots, ridges, & other ingrowths
    - - Mass of Parenchyma cells
        
        most common type of cell/tissue
        
        Constituting all soft parts of the plant
        
        example: leaves, pedals, fruits, and seeds
        
        Active metabolically
        
        Usually remain alive after they mature
    - - primary wall- thin in spots thick in others
      - present in elongating tips
        
        long and flexible (grape vine )
      - requires glucose
    - - has a primary and secondary wall
      - can be deformed and will go back to there shape
      - has two types
        
        Conducting
        
        tracheids
        
        dead @ maturity
        
        long/narrow with tapered end
        
        vessel elements
        
        dead @ maturity
        
        found in flowering plants
        
        mechanical
        
        scleriod
        
        dead @ maturity
        
        fibers
        
        long, dead, involve storage
  - - - creating new cells and their tips
    - - just below apical meristem
        
        cells dividing and growing
    - - cells from subapical meristem
        
        constitute first xylem
    - - largest tracheary elements
    - - epidermal cells in early stages of differention
    - - young cells of xylem and phloem
    - - stages of pith and cortex
    - - tissues produced by apical meristem
    - - growth and tissue formation
- - - - holds leaves into light
  - - - many small leafs
  - - - thick/fleshy leaves
        
        surface-to-volume ration
        
        favors water conservation
      - advantageous for water retention
      - automatic consequences of reducing the amount of CO2
    - - Must produce more sugars by photosynthesis
        
        or will lose energy every time it produced a leaf
      - leaves tend to be soft, flexible, and edible
    - - leaves are sclerophylls
        
        thick cuticle
        
        epidermis and hypodermis cells have thick walls
      - simple leaves
        
        mostly perennial
        
        remain on stem for years
      - needles either short or longer
        
        live for atleast 5 years
    - - most common modification to leaves
      - tight layer around the stem tip
      - primary role is protection
      - small
        
        rarely compound
        
        short/absent petiole
        
        tougher and waxier than regular leaves.
      - frequently produce thin layer of corky bark
    - - Clusters of spines
        
        needle shaped but bladless
        
        modified leaves of axillary buds
      - protection against hebivores
    - - grow indefinitely
      - has cells that are capable of sensing contact with an object
        
        when touched it causes it to quit growing a coil around the object
        
        use it for support
    - - lack palisade parenchyma
      - lack mesophyll
      - adapts C4 plants to arid enviroments
    - - ability to trap/digest insects
      - grow in habitats low in nitrates and ammonia
      - leaves similar to foliage leaves
        
        thin
        
        capable of phoytosyntesis
      - lamina is tubular not flat
        
        secretes watery digestive fluid
      - some produces sticky digestive liquid
  - - - Leaves only produced through the activity of a shoot apical meriste
      - Leaf Peimoridium
        
        cells interior to the protoderm grow outward, forming a protrusion.
        
        as it grows up it increases in thickness
    - - expansion of shoot apical meristem
        
        forms Leaf primordium
        
        grow upward forming primordium
        
        gives a hood like shape
        
        involves unitl primordium is a cylinder
        
        or until it completely encircles the apical meristem
  - - - outer layer of the leaf
      - Covered in a cuticle
        
        Wax like structure to help hold water in the plant
      - absorbs water and minerals
      - regulates gas exchange
    - - lower part of the leaf
        
        Allows CO2 to enter rapidly
      - Palisade Parenchyma
        
        upper layer of cells found in a leaf
        
        also called palisade meophyll
        
        Some plants have this along both surfaces of the leaf
        
        Example: Grass
      - Ground tissue interior to leaf epidermis
    - - Leaf Traces
        
        1,3,5, or more vascular bundles
      - Stipules
        
        found at base
        
        can help protect the apical meristem
      - transition to the lamina
        
        helps the shedding of leaves
    - - Mid Rib
        
        Also known as mid vein
        
        provides support
      - Lateral veins
        
        emerge from Midvein
      - minor vein
        
        emerge from lateral veins
        
        are super narrow
      - Bundle Sheath
        
        Fibers arranged as a sheath
      - Bundle Sheath extensions
        
        Mass of fiber above, below, or both around large veins
        
        give rigidity to the blade
        
        Provides another way for water to move from the bundle out to the mesophyll
- - - - important driving force
  - - - simple sugars diffuse into conducting cells
        
        polymerized into polysaccharides
  - - - extremely diverse
  - - - found as fine network adjacent to plasma membrane
    - - p-protein is carried to the sieve area and is to large to pass so it plugs the hole.
  - - - solution only if under pressure
      - if injured causes a pressure drop
        
        then carried with p-protein to the sieve area
  - - - Cohesive
        
        Water interacts strongly with other water molecules
      - Adhesive
        
        water molecules interact with many other substances
      - water adheres firmly to soil
      - Heavy
        
        requires great deal of energy to lift to the top of a tree
    - - Cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        when stomatal pores are open water loss happens
        
        most widely acceptable model
        
        water loss is called trans-stomatal transpiration
      - transcuticular transpiration
        
        water loss directly through the cuticle
      - cavitaion
        
        hydrogen bonding is broken over a large region
        
        water column breaks
      - embolism
        
        space between the two portions
    - - Bulk movement of water through xylem
        
        influenced and powered by water loss
  - - - transfer water, sugars, minerals, and hormones
    - - all the protoplasm of one plan can be considered one continues mass
    - - osmosis
      - molecular pumps in plasma membrane
      - fusion between transport vesicles and plasma membrane
    - - opening/closing of stomatal pores
        
        use potassium to open
    - - "joints"
      - accumulate or expel potassium
      - located along the midrib
    - - exterior surface: smooth
      - Inner surface: numerous finger-like and ridge like outgrowth
        
        makes more surface area
  - - - random movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration
    - - movement through a membrane
        
        3 types of membranes
        
        Completely impermeable
        
        do not allow anything to pass
        
        occur as isolation barriers
        
        Selectively permeable membrane
        
        allow only certain substances to pass
        
        lipids/protein cell membranes are differentially permeable
        
        Freely Permeable
        
        allow all solutes to diffuse through them
        
        have little biological signficance
        
        hydrophobic molecules diffuse through any membrane
        
        hydrophilic molecules can only pass through if a protein channel is present
    - - vesicle migrate through the cytoplasm and fuse w/another organelle
    - - aquaporins
        
        protein channel water moves through rapidly
      - molecular pumps
        
        use ATP to force molecule across the membrane
- - - - partially buried
    - - below the organs
    - - above other parts
  - - - only carpellate or stamenate
    - - Staminate and Carpellate
    - - Lacks essential organs
    - - Stamens
      - Carples
  - - - Stems and roots
    - - Bilaterally symmetrical flowers
  - - - prevent pollen growth
  - - - Indehiscent Fruit
        
        Other carry seeds off
      - Dehiscent fruit
    - - Accessory fruit
        
        non-ovarian tissue
      - Mulitple fruit
        
        all fuse
      - True Fruit
        
        only ovarian tissue
      - aggregate fruit
        
        separate carpel fuse
      - Simple Fruit
        
        Single ovary
  - - - Considered determinate inflorsence
    - - Considered indetminate inflorescences
  - - - Spreading plants
      - Establish advantageous roots
  - - - Fruit
        
        mature ovary
      - Exocarp
        
        outer layer
      - Mesocarp
        
        Flesh
      - Endocarp
        
        Innermost layer
      - Pericarp
        
        Entire fruit wall
    - - Alternation of Generations
        
        Sporophyte and gametophytes
      - Zygote
        
        Fertilized egg
      - Gametes
        
        sperm and egg
      - Spores
        
        After meiosis
      - Fertilization
        
        Gametes fuse
      - Megagmetes
        
        large eggs
      - Gametophyte
        
        Haploid Plant
      - Sporophytes Phase
        
        one Phase
      - Microgametes
        
        small sperm cells
      - Heteromorphic generations
        
        Gametophytes don't resemble sporophytes
    - - Megagametophyte
        
        Polar nuclei
        
        two
        
        Egg Aparatus
        
        Antipodal cells
        
        3 small
        
        Central cell
        
        Large
        
        Embryo Sac
        
        Multinucleate megagametophyte
      - Microgametophyte
        
        Generative cells
        
        small
        
        Pollen tube
        
        Penetrates stigma
        
        Vegatative cells
        
        large
    - - Suspensor
        
        Embryo into endosperm
      - Seed Coats
      - Cotyledons
        
        two primordia
      - Radicle
        
        embryonic roots
      - Epicoyl
        
        Embryonic Stems
      - Hypocotyl
        
        root and shoot junction
      - Albuminous seeds
        
        Abundant endosperm
      - Exalbuminous
        
        Sparse endosperm
    - - Karyogamy
        
        Fusion of nuclei
      - Plasmogamy
        
        Fusion of protoplasts
      - Endosperm
        
        Coenocytic and cellular
      - Double Fertiliztion
        
        Sperm undergo fusions
    - - Petals
        
        Make up corolla
        
        Sepals and Petals
      - Sepals
        
        Calyx
        
        All sepals together
        
        Four floral appendages
        
        Lowest and Outermost
      - Stamens
        
        Anther
        
        Where pollen produced
        
        Pollen
        
        Above Petals
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk
      - Capels
        
        Constitute the gynoecium
        
        Placentae
        
        inside ovary
        
        Style
        
        Elevates stigma
        
        Stigma
        
        catches pollen
        
        Ovary
        
        Megaspores produced
        
        Nucellus
        
        mass of parenchyma
- - - - Meteorite stricking earth
      - Volcanic eruptions
  - - - Selective breeding
    - - Flower more or for a longer time
  - - - Population must produce more offspring than can possibly grow/survive
      - Progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles
    - - Purpose, intention, planning, or voluntary decision making
  - - - Phyletic speciation
        
        One species gradually changed enough to be considered a new species
      - Divergent speciation
        
        Some populations of a species evolve into a new species while other populations stay relatively unchanged
    - - Gene flow
        
        New beneficial alleles arise and are selected for
        
        Spread throughout the entire population
      - Pollen transfer
        
        Pollen (sperm) has a new allele fertilizes an egg and forms a seed with the new allele
      - Seed dispersal
        
        Long distance dispersal mechanisms
        
        Wind, floods, stream flow, animals, humans are some examples
      - Vegetative propagation
        
        Plant produces small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively they contribute to gene flow
    - - Reproductively isolated
        
        Allele that arise in one part do not reach individuals in another part
      - A biological reproductive barriers
        
        abiological reproductive barrier
        
        Non living feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
        
        Allopathic or geographic speciation
        
        Original species is physically divided into two or more populations that cannot interbreed
      - Biological reproductive barriers
        
        Biological reproductive barrier
        
        Biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
        
        Sympatric speciation
        
        Two groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
        
        Prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        Barriers prevent pollen from moving from one plant to another thus neither pollination nor fertilization occurs
        
        Postsygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Placed and the two sub populations must be considered separate species
        
        Hybrid sterility
        
        One of the eariest postzygotic barriers to arise
        
        Two populations occasionally interbreed or are artificially cross-pollinated
        
        Hybrid invisibility
        
        If cross-pollinated and alleles from one parent code for a protein in compatibilite with those coded from the other parent
        
        Zygote of embryo dies early
      - Adaptive radiation
        
        Species rapidly diverges into many new species over a short time ( a few million years)
        
        Founder individuals
        
        Initial gene pool is extremely small
      - Convergent Evolution
        
        Two may evolve to the point the resemble each other
  - - - Attempts to model the origin of life using only known chemical and physical processes
      - Rejects all traces of divine intervention
    - - Second atmosphere
        
        Produced by release of gases from the rock matrix composing earth
        
        Reducing atmosphere
        
        Due to lack of molecular oxygen and the presence of powerful reducing agents
    - - Heat
      - Intense UV and ratiation from the sun
      - Electricity
    - - Time available for chemosynthetic origin has no limits
- - - - waterproof
    - - mature layer
    - - turns into Phellem cell
    - - remains Cork cambium
  - - - Fibers present
      - growth up and down
      - contains sieve tubes
      - Contains companion cells
    - - Only parenchyma cells present
  - - - Annual rings
        
        late wood
        
        summer wood
        
        lower portion of vessels
        
        early wood
        
        Porous
        
        spring wood
        
        higher portion of vessels
    - - Heartwood
        
        dark wood
        
        center of long
        
        widens with age
        
        one annual ring is converted into heartwood
      - Sapwood
        
        lighter
        
        moist
        
        constant thickness
        
        new layers formed yearly
    - - Radial System
        
        develop from ray initials
      - Hardwood
        
        Lots of fibers
        
        strength
        
        Durability
        
        used for constructions
        
        angiosperm
        
        Eudicot
      - Axial System
        
        developed from fusiform intials
        
        Longitudinal conduction of water
    - - Walls rich in cellulose
      - wider growth rings at top
      - no lignin
      - Wall rich in cellulose
  - - - Interfascicular Cambium
        
        Young Cells
        
        connects to Fascicular Cambium
      - Vascular Cambium
        
        Produces secondary plant body
        
        two cells:
        
        Ray
        
        Fusiform
      - Fascicular Cambium
        
        Bundle Cells
        
        Young cells
    - - Thin primary walls
      - Axial Phloem
      - Axial Xylem
      - Long/tapered cells
      - Periclinal wall
        
        increases cambial cells
        
        perpendicular to surface of the Cambium
    - - Short
      - undergo periclinal cell division
        
        outer cell (Phloem)
        
        inner cell (xylem)
      - storage parenchyma
    - - Non storied Cambium
      - storied Cambium
  - - - Don't store water
      - consist of sclerenchyma
      - rays are small
- - - - Canna Lillies
      - Bananas
      - Gingers
    - - Catatails
      - Bromeliads
      - Sedges
  - - - Medically significant
      - Sunflower
      - Exploitation
      - iridoid compounds
    - - Santalales
        
        parasitic
      - caryophyllales
        
        perisperm
        
        nutrient tissue
    - - pinnately compound leaves
      - More derived than tricolpates
  - - - flowers are more diverse
    - - early angiosperms
    - - flowers arranged in multiples of three
  - - - C. E. Bessey created hypothesis
      - generalized
    - - wind pollinated
- - - - the cycadophytes ( has three divisions)
        
        Cycadophyta
        
        cycads (extant)
        
        Cycadeoidophyta
        
        cycadeoids (all extinct)
        
        pteridospermophyta
        
        seed ferns (all extinct)
  - - - very tall
      - large wedges
  - - - Woody Plants
    - - seed plants
    - - very soft, spongy, parenchymatous wood
    - - hard, strong wood with little parenchyma
    - - plants with "naked ovules"
        
        ovules located on flat sporophylls
        
        example: pine cones
    - - flowering plants with carpels
      - believed to be sporopohylls that form tube-like closed structures
  - - - they are perennial (persisting for many years)
    - - tiny papery leaves occur here
    - - produce familiar long needle leaves
    - - aka pollen cones
      - has single short unbranched axis that bears microsporophylls
    - - aka seed cones
      - consist of a shoot with axillary buds
    - - short axis bears leaves called cone bracts rather than sporophylls
    - - megasporophylls are fused laterally on the axillary bud
    - - zygote doesn't immediately to form embryo, instead some of first cells elongate and push other cells deep into the megagametophyte
    - - develop into the embryo
- - - - Primary xylem
      - primary phloem
    - - epidermis
  - - - more resistant to:
        
        Radiation
        
        Toxic Chemicals
      - Forms new apical meristem if old ever becomes damaged
  - - - Production of lateral root
    - - minerals
      - water
    - - Control minerals that enter xylem's water
  - - - Casparian Strips
    - - Water/mineral pressure
  - - - Develop:
        
        Dense starch grains
        
        endoplasmic reticulum dispelled
      - detect gravity
  - - - Lateral Roots
        
        Sprout from taproot
      - Radicle
        
        beginning of a taproot
        
        dies immediately
      - Adventitious Root
        
        increases transport and absorption
        
        to not come from pre-existing roots
      - Monocots/Eudicots
        
        Monocots
        
        Cant undergo secondary growth
        
        cant increase conducting capacity
        
        fibrous root system
        
        similar sized roots
        
        Eudicots
        
        Undergo secondary Growth
        
        increase quantity of health
        
        perineal
    - - root cap
        
        mucigel
      - Root Hair Zone
        
        Epidermal cells extend
        
        Root Hairs
        
        no thick walls
        
        Part of root that does not elongate
        
        Can enter anywhere
        
        Extract water/mineral
        
        unicellular
        
        Transitory
        
        die/regenerate within 4-5 days
      - Zone of enlongation
        
        Division/expansion
      - Absence of
        
        leaf axils, leaves, leaf scars, axillary buds
    - - Contractile Roots
        
        Grow out then pull in
        
        Base of shoot level with soil
      - Root Nodules & Nitrogen Fixation
        
        Infection Thread
        
        Bacteria/parasoe
        
        Nitrogen Fixation
        
        Conversion of atmosphere nitrogen
      - Aerial Roots of Orchids
        
        Epiphytic
        
        Dang Freely in air
        
        adapted to drought conditions
        
        waterproof barrier
      - Storage Roots
        
        carbohydrates form photosynthesis
        
        produce new shoot in spring
      - Prop Roots
        
        Mangrove Tree
        
        buttress roots
        
        acts as stablizer
        
        transports water/nutrients to stem
      - Mycorrhizae
        
        Ectomycorrhizal Relationship
        
        penetrate cortex
        
        never invades the cell
      - Haustorial Roots of Parasitic Flowering Plants
        
        Parasitic Roots
        
        Burrows down and doesn't let go
      - Roots of Strangler Figs
        
        Kills tree by stragulation
        
        grows at various angles
        
        roots fuse
  - - - Endodermis torn/crushed
        
        Cell division
- - - - in extinct and extant lycophytes sporangia are clustered together in compact groups
      - protection
  - - - fairly common in forest
      - small with prostrate rhizomes
      - have true roots and short upright branches
    - - small flap of tissue
      - found on selaginellas
  - - - both branches being of equal size and vigor
    - - fossils that have general characters
    - - protoxylem is located in center and metaxylem differentiates on outer edge of xylem mass
    - - center is a solid mass of xylem with no pith
    - - other type of stele present in early vascular plants
      - metaxylem located in center of xylem mass and protoxylem on the edges as several groups next to phloem
    - - stele that evolved later
      - one in which pith is present in center as occurs in the stems of ferns
    - - group of early vascular plants
      - named after the principal genus Zosterophyllum
      - small herbs without secondary growth
    - - outgrowths
        
        range from quite small to large, thin scales
    - - Trimerophytes
        
        overtopping
        
        unequal branching I which one stem was more vigorous.
        
        Pseudomonopodial branching
        
        single main trunk rather than a series of dichotomies
      - Origin of Megaphylls (Euphylls)
        
        Megaphylls
        
        leaves that evolve from branch systems and are present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytes
        
        Telomes
        
        ultimate twigs of the last dichotomy
        
        Planation
        
        all subdivisions of lateral branch become aligned in one planeand parenchyma develop between telomes
        
        Webbing
        
        Even lower branches
        
        Sporophyll
        
        if branching system involved in this evolution produced sporangia
        
        resulting structure would not be just a leaf but a sporophyll
        
        Euphyllophytes
        
        We believe all megaphyllous plants form a monophyletic clade now reffered to as a euphyllophytes
      - Monilophytes
        
        current studies suggest that megaphyllous plants united by three synapomorphies:
        
        have megaphylls
        
        have 30-kilobase inversion in the large singlcopy region of their plastid DNA
        
        roots have exarch xylem
        
        Contain two sister clades
        
        monilophytes
        
        aka ferns
        
        lignophytes
        
        aka woody plants
      - Equisetophytes
        
        has 15 extant species
        
        known as horsetails or scouring rushes
        
        Sporangiophore
        
        reproductive structures in groups of 5-10 located on umbrella shaped object.
        
        monopodial growth
        
        main trunk, lateral branches, true leaves, and true roots
        
        leptosporangiate ferns
        
        monilophytes have more than 12000 species almost all are leptosporangiate ferns
        
        ferns that are familiar to you
        
        Leaf trace
        
        at each node
        
        diverges from the siphonostele
        
        Leaf Gap
        
        small segment of the vascular cylinder as just parenchyma
        
        Sori
        
        underside of the leaf
        
        eusporangium
        
        initiated when several surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
        
        resulting in small multilayered plate of cells
        
        Leptosporangia
        
        initiated when a single surface cell divides periclinally and forms small outward protrusion
- - - - example: larger areas are more diverse
    - - relationship between area and species richness
    - - Plot the number of species in each abundance class
  - - - One can not exist without the other
      - Maximum sustained yield
      - Fixed Quota harvesting
        
        hunters/fisherman are allowed to harvest
      - prey-dependent
      - fixed effort harvesting
        
        population health is determined by the amount of fish, deer, ect. than can be harvested with a particular amount of effort.
      - zero growth isocline
        
        predator population
        
        prey density
      - functional response
      - Paradox of enrichment
        
        improving conditions for prey so predatory my overexploit prey and both can be lost
    - - Optimal Diet Model
        
        Four Predictions
        
        Energy yield of prey
        
        Probability
        
        Broadening diet if high yield is scarce
        
        some prey will always be eaten
      - Optimal foraging theory
        
        herbivore behavior
    - - No actual competition happening
    - - resources
      - Interference competition
      - Invasive
      - ecploitation competition
  - - - plants that alter area of habitat immediately below themselves for the survival of seedlings
    - - organisms become established on newly created substrates
  - - - a way to trace energy flows through the community
    - - presence or absence of certain species
    - - network of numerous interrelationships
    - - Direct line of consumption
- - - - Random Distribution
      - Uniform DIstributions
        
        Allelopathy
        
        Allelochemics
      - Clumped Distribuitions
    - - Limiting Factor
    - - The Plant Itself
        
        Self Modification of Habitat
        
        neutral
        
        beneficial
        
        Detremental
      - Organisms other than Plants
        
        Predation
        
        Herbivores
        
        Browsing
        
        Grazing
        
        Commensal realtionships
        
        One species benefits
        
        other is neutral
        
        Frugivores
      - Other Plant Species
        
        Competition
        
        interactions is disadvantageous
        
        exclusion
        
        Mutualism
        
        interaction is beneficial to both
  - - - Generation time
      - Intrinsic rate of natural increases
        
        Carrying Capacity
  - - - Number & Diversity of species within an ecosystem
        
        Depends on:
        
        Soil
        
        poor
        
        rich
        
        Tolerance
        
        Broad
        
        Narrow
        
        Climate
        
        Mild
        
        Stressful
    - - Physical size/shape of organism
    - - Decomposers
        
        Fungi
        
        Bacteria
      - Photosynthesis
        
        Dominant Methods
      - Green Vascular Plant
        
        Most important for photosynthesis
      - Feeding Levels
      - Primary Producers
        
        Autotrophs
      - Primary Consumers
      - Carbon Flow
      - Secondary Consumers
      - Energy Flow
- - - - important part of energy
        
        3 ways to phosphorylate ADP to ATP
        
        Substrate-Level phosphorylation
        
        Compounds w/high energy phosphate group forces their phosphate on ADP
        
        Oxidative Phosphorylation
        
        Last phase
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        Involves light energy
        
        In chloroplast
  - - - Allow to make 1 or more smaller pigments
        
        smaller, less energy, controlable
      - Allow them to enter everything.
        
        Problems: to large, to energized, hard to control
  - - - Cytochromes
        
        sm protein contains cofactor, heme, and holds iron atom
        
        Integral part of thylakiod
      - Plastoquinones
        
        Transport electrons short distances in membrane
      - Plastocyanin
        
        sm protein that carry electron on metal atom
        
        Chloroplast membrane
    - - Oxidized
        
        Atom doesn't have max electrons
      - Reduced
        
        Electrons added to atom
  - - - Day time
        
        Stroma open to collect CO2
        
        Bad for water conservation
      - Night time
        
        stroma closed to save water
    - - Palisade parenchyma above
        
        Good for CO2 absorption. Bad for water conservation
      - Spongy mesophyle below
    - - CO2 absorbed, transported, & concentrations in a leaf
    - - 3 view points
        
        Quantity
        
        light intensity/brightness
        
        Quality
        
        color/wavelength
        
        Duration
        
        of hrs/day of sunlight
    - - second metabolic adaption
      - Improves conservation of water
      - Promotes photosynthesis
  - - - aka light dependent
        
        creates intermediate ATP and NADPH
        
        Photostem 1
        
        Red light absorbed
        
        energy exits on electron of P700
        
        Photostem 2
        
        Oxidized state
        
        Orbital are rearranged
        
        Breakdown/destruction of molecules
        
        Synthesis of ATP
        
        Production of ATP and NADPH
        
        Will be used for stroma
    - - ATP and NADPH interact with CO2 and produce carbohydrates
      - Conversion of CO2 to carbohydrate
        
        Done in stroma
      - Builds everything a plant could need
        
        Example: sugar, fats, amino acids, nucleic acids
    - - CO2 w/water to form carbohydrates
    - - Lg. molecules rearranged to fit in cytoplasm
        
        Builds larger/more complex molecule
      - Anabolic pathways storage forms
        
        Intermediate term
        
        Glucose/Sucrose moves cell to cell
        
        last weeks/months
        
        Long term
        
        Starch
        
        Last for years
        
        Short term
        
        ATP and NADPH used in cell
        
        Last shortly
- - - - yields 2 ATP
    - - No ATP's
    - - No ATP's
    - - Net 2 ATP's
    - - net 2 ATP's during glycolysis
        
        Since 2 pyruvates are formed 6 more ATP's are formed
        
        Krebs cycle
        
        yields 2 ATP
        
        Net of 24 ATP's
        
        6 NADH
  - - - Breaks down glucose through glycolysis
        
        Net 2 ATP formed
        
        Produce 2 pyruvate molecules
        
        React with NADH to form latic acid in humans
        
        converted to acetaldehyde in plants
        
        React with NADH to form ethanol in plants
      - A.K.A. Embden- Meyerhoff Pathway
      - No oxygen needed
    - - Oxygen needed
      - Consist of three parts
        
        Glycolysis
        
        Occurs in the Cytosol and Plastids
        
        See picture above for more details
        
        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        A.K.A the Krebs Cycle
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        Net of 3 ATP's made
    - - Energy lost in the steps of aerobic respiration
      - Heat "lost" necessary to maintain body temp
        
        Shivering
        
        Break down of ATP for heat
      - A.K.A Thermogenic Respiration
    - - Involves several intermediates
        
        Example: five carbon sugars (pentose)
      - Metabolism of Meristematic cells
        
        Lg. amounts of DNA are synthesized
        
        shifted in favor of ribose production
      - Flower petals/bright colored fruits
        
        divert Erythrose 4- phosphate
        
        synthesis of amino acids
      - Produces NADPH
        
        used for amino acids
      - occur in cytosol and plastids
    - - Lipids undergo catabolic metabolism
        
        lipids are broke down
        
        Glycerol and three fatty acids (triglycerides)
        
        fatty acids further broke down by B- oxidation
        
        Glycerol and two fatty acids (phospholipids)
        
        Once broke down electrons are transfered
        
        Electron transport chain
        
        if for further respired it can go to the Krebs cycle.
        
        In cytosol or micro bodies (glyoxysomes)
    - - occurs when oxygen is added instead of carbon dioxide
        
        results in Gycolate converted glycine
        
        respired to Carbon dioxide and water
        
        Wasted energy
        
        No conservation of energy in ATP or NADA
        
        Glycine converted to serine
        
        both useful for amino acids
- - - - Flower Plants
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Small
        
        Inside pollen grains and ovules
        
        Sporophytes
        
        Larger
        
        Leaves and roots
      - Nonvascular Plants
        
        Ganetophytes
        
        Larger
        
        more of a prominent generation
        
        Always grow up to be smaller
        
        Sporophytes
        
        Smaller
        
        more temporatry
        
        Very inconspicuous
        
        Never branch
        
        little photosynthesis
        
        Never independent of the genophute
        
        Never have leaves
  - - - Multicellular Sporangia and Gametangia
  - - - "Bryophytes" only for mosses
      - Referred as: "Bryophytes"
      - "Nonvascular Plants"
      - "Bryophyta"
        
        Class 2: Liverworts, Hepaticae
        
        Class 3: Hornworts, Anthoceroatae
        
        Class 1: Mosses, Musci
- - - - division of protoplast
      - random distribution of organelles from mother cell are passed down
      - in plants:
        
        involves formation of phragmoplast
        
        Short microtubules aligned parallel to the spindle microtubules
      - Meiosis 1
        
        prophase 1
        
        Nucleolus and nuclear membrane break down
        
        spindles form
        
        Microtubules attach to centromeres
        
        Chromosomes condense and become visible
        
        Special interactions of chromosomes occur now:
        
        Leptotene- chromosome become distinguishable
        
        zygotene-pairing of chromosomes occur
        
        Pachytene- chromosome continue to condense, become shorter and thicker
        
        Crossing over occurs
        
        Diplotene- chromosome pairs begin to move away from each other but do not seperate
        
        Diakinesis- chromosome pairs continue to separate and chiasmata are pushed to ends of chromosomes
        
        metaphase 1
        
        Spindle microtubles move tetrads to center of cell
        
        Anaphase 1
        
        Chromosome pairs split completely moving to opposite ends of the spindle
        
        Telophase 1
        
        Chromosomes are still doubled
        
        Are in a G2 state
      - Meiosis 2
        
        Prophase 2
        
        not subdivide like pp1
        
        metaphase 2
        
        short and sweet version of met 1
        
        Anaphase 2
        
        separates new chromosome from its replicate
        
        Telophase2
        
        New nuclei are formed
    - - Mitosis- duplication division
        
        Prophase
        
        Spindle fibers attach from poles to centromere
        
        Nucleolus becomes less distinct
        
        Eventually disappears
        
        Protein framework developos
        
        Chromosomes condense
        
        Telophase
        
        reversal process of prophase
        
        Nuclear envelop forms around chromosomes
        
        Metaphase
        
        Number of chromosomes double but size is halved
        
        Push chromosomes to middle of cell
        
        arrangement there is called metaphase plate
        
        Anaphase
        
        pull each daughter chromosome away from its twin
        
        freeing of two kinetochore faces from each other
  - - - genes are replicated
      - Linking pieces of DNA
      - Histone molecules complex with new DNA
    - - Cells prepare for division
      - Phase last 3-5 hours
      - Alfa and Beta tubulins are synthesized
        
        This is for spindle microtublules
      - produce proteins nessesary
        
        processing chromosomes and breaking nuclear evelop
      - After this stage division can occur
    - - 1st stage after division
      - Long Part of the Cell cylce
      - Normal Metabolism
  - - - Algae have no wall
        
        plasma membrane pinches in two (cleavage furrow)
      - Algae with wall
        
        Similar to cytokinesis of plants
  - - - Infurrowing: plasma membrane pulls inward and finally pinches in two.