Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Botany (Plant features (Roots (Functions (Anchoring the plant (Provides…

- - - - Leaf blade(Lamina)
        
        Thin, light harvesting portion
      - Dorsal Surface
        
        The back side of the leaf
        
        Large veins
      - Ventral Surface
        
        The upper side of the leaf
        
        Smooth Surface
      - Petiole
        
        Holds leaf out into the light
        
        Flexibility
        
        Leaf can reach into the wind
        
        Cooling
        
        CO2 absorption
        
        Insect protection
      - No petiole
        
        Sessile leaf
      - Simple leaf
        
        Blade has single part
        
        Many small leaves are simple
        
        More photosynthetic
      - Compound leaf
        
        Multiple parts on one blade
        
        Majority of large leaves are compound
      - Plants can have both types
      - Veins
        
        Bundles of vascular tissue
        
        Transport nutrients into the leaves
        
        Transport made sugars back to trunk
      - Abscission Zone
        
        Cuts leaf off at death
    - - Internal Structure
        
        Epidermis
        
        Semi-waterproof
        
        Prevents transpiration
        
        Hairs=Trichomes
        
        Outer wax layer
        
        Water retention
        
        Protection
        
        Stinging compounds
        
        Larger animal protection
        
        Insect protection
        
        Prevent Rapid air movement
        
        Slows Water loss
        
        Shade
        
        Stomata
        
        Mesophyl
        
        Interior to Epidermis
        
        Palisade Parenchyma
        
        Main Photosynthetic tissue
        
        Spongy mesophyll
        
        Loose aerenchyma
        
        CO2 diffusion
        
        Vascular Tissue
        
        Between Palisade Parenchyma and mesophyll
        
        Midrib
        
        lateral veins
        
        Minor veins
        
        2 more items...
        
        Conduction
        
        conduction
        
        Bundle sheath
        
        around midrib and lateral veins
        
        Support+protection
        
        Petiole
        
        between stem and lamina
        
        variable cell arrangement
    - - Eudicots
        
        apical meristem
        
        Only spot of leaf production
        
        Leaf primordium
        
        interior to protoderm
        
        Grows tall and thick
        
        Establishes base of midrib
        
        outward growth=lamina
        
        Begin initiation in spring or autumn
      - Monocots
        
        Apical meristem
        
        Leaf primordium
        
        Nearly encircles meristem
        
        Elongation of leaves
    - - Succulent leaves
        
        thick and fleshy
        
        Extreme water retention
      - Foliage Leaves
        
        Less sclereyma
        
        Thin and flexible
        
        very edible
      - Conifers
        
        Thick cuticle
        
        unpalatable chemicals
        
        perennial
        
        year round
      - Cacti Spines
        
        Protection
      - Tendrils
        
        Sense of touch
      - Insect traps
        
        Active or passive
        
        Nitrogen from insects
  - - - Anchoring the plant
        
        Provides stability
        
        Holds the plant/tree upright
      - water+mineral absorption
        
        Cylindrical shape
        
        Absorbtion from all sides
        
        Also helps for easier growth
      - Hormone production
        
        cytokinin+ gibberellin
        
        growth and development of shoot
      - Storage
    - - Highly Branched
        
        Easier for more absorbtion
        
        Single Large taproots
        
        Small numerous branch roots
        
        Develops from the radicle
        
        Fibrous root system
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Increase Absorbtion
        
        Increase transport
        
        Advantageous to monocots
        
        Mononcots can't undergo secondary growth
      - Individual Root Structure
        
        Root tip
        
        Growth in length
        
        Apical Meristem
        
        Growth in Girth
        
        Only occurs in small intervals
        
        Only extreme tip pushes through soil
        
        root cap
        
        Thick layer of cells
        
        Protects Root Apical Meristem
        
        Renewed by cell multiplication
        
        mucigel
        
        Lubricates root for easier soil passage
      - Zone of Elongation
        
        Area of cell division+expansion
      - Root hair zone
        
        Epidermal Trichomes
        
        Only in areas of no growth
        
        Root hairs increase root surface area
    - - Root cap
        
        Place of cell division
        
        Files of cells pushed forward
        
        Cells begin small
        
        Pushed to edge
        
        Become dense
        
        Produce mucigel
        
        Eventually sloughed off
      - Root Apical Meristem
        
        Point of root growth
        
        quiescent center
        
        Central region of meristem
        
        mitotically inactive
        
        Reserve of healthy cells
        
        Become active if meristem is damaged
      - Zone of Elongation
        
        Just behind apical meristem
        
        Cells here expand greatly
        
        Cells begin to differentiate
        
        Outermost cells
        
        Differentiate into epidermis
        
        Center cells
        
        Primary Xylem+Phloem
        
        Furthest from Tip
        
        Permeable tissues
        
        Little absorbtion
        
        Nutrients used directly for growth
      - Zone of maturation/Root hair zone
        
        Root hairs grow outward
        
        increases absorbtion
        
        Endodermis
        
        Is waterproof
        
        protection
        
        pericycle
    - - Initiated by cell divisions in the pericycle
      - Tears through epidermis
      - Localized mitotic activity
    - - Storage roots
        
        Carb storage
        
        Packed during summer
        
        Saved for the winter
        
        Saved for perennial growth
        
        Ex. Carrots
      - Prop Roots
        
        Grow slightly above ground
        
        Still function in transportation
        
        Stabilization
        
        Ex. Palms
      - Contractile Roots
        
        Ex. onions
        
        Contract in soil
        
        Holds bulb in place
    - - Ch.12 Transport Processes
        
        Moving material through a membrane
        
        Diffusion
        
        Particles move from low concentration to high concentration
        
        Freely permeable membrane
        
        Allows all solutes to pass through
        
        Completely impermeable membrane
        
        barriers
        
        allow nothing to pass through
        
        Selective permeable membranes
        
        allow certain substances to pass through
        
        aquaporins
        
        rapid water exchange through a membrane
        
        Active transport
        
        burns ATP
        
        uses a molecular pump to force molecules through the membrane
        
        Intracellular transport
        
        vacuoles transport materials from cell to cell
        
        Water Potential
        
        Water has free energy
        
        Can be reduced
        
        by cooling
        
        By lowering the water
        
        by reducing pressure
        
        Can be increased
        
        by heating
        
        increase elevation
        
        increasing pressure
        
        osmotic potential
        
        The effect solutes have on water potential
        
        More solutes=less free energy
        
        is always negative
        
        decreases diffusion potential
        
        Matric potential
        
        the adhesion of water to non dissolved particles
        
        Much less important in living cells
        
        Water movement
        
        Cells move from +Water potential to - water potential
        
        equilibrium
        
        equal water potential
        
        Water can move through most plant regions
        
        plants collect water from water based on solutes in the water
        
        Rivers
        
        streams
        
        Lakes
        
        Plants collect water from the air
        
        Rain
        
        fog
        
        Dew
        
        Air also pulls water from plants
        
        Plasmolyzed cell
        
        protoplasts pulls away from cell wall
        
        cell shrinks
        
        Short distance cellular Intercellular transport
        
        Transferring materials:
        
        Waters
        
        Sugars
        
        minerals
        
        Hormones
        
        Modes of transports
        
        Plasmodesmata
        
        Cytoplasmic channels
        
        Pass through primary cell walls
        
        Makes the protoplasm one continuous mass
        
        Referrd to as Symplast
        
        Across the plasma membrane
        
        osmosis
        
        transport vesicles
        
        transport vesicles
        
        Guard cells
        
        Open and close to release/conserve water
        
        Activated by potassium
        
        Motor Cells
        
        Trigger flexture in plants
        
        Transfer Cells
        
        Specialized to hold many molecular pumps
        
        Long distance transport:Xylem
        
        Based on the properties of water
        
        water is very cohesive
        
        interacts strongly within itself
        
        water is adhesive
        
        Interacts with many other substances
        
        Water transport through xylem
        
        Cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        open stoma cause water loss
        
        referred to as transstomatal transpiration
        
        Spongy mesophyll + Palisade parenchyma quickly lose water
        
        Transcuticular Transpiration
        
        Not typical
        
        Water loss through cuticle
        
        Immobile water layer forms on cell walls
        
        Dry soil
        
        Causes cavitation
        
        Hyrdrogen bond breakdown over a large area
        
        Kills the tracheid
        
        Causes embolism
        
        air bubble
        
        guard cells
        
        Water loss can be advantageous
        
        Only when soil water is plenty
        
        Provides cooling
        
        often controlled by light
  - - - Fragmentation
        
        one of the most common forms of asexual reproduction
        
        A plant spreads vines, and individual part become self- sufficient
        
        if middle portions die, the outside portions act as individuals
    - - in angiosperms, involves flowers
        
        flower house the necessary cells
      - The plant life cycle
        
        Sporophyte phase/generation
        
        Trees, shrubs, herbs
        
        Sporophytes are always diploid
        
        Contain cells capable of meiosis
        
        Produces haploid spores
        
        Undergo mitosis and form a haploid gametophyte
        
        A plant that produces gametes
        
        Gametes
        
        Sperm
        
        Zygote
        
        forms a new individual
        
        Microgametes
        
        Eggs
        
        Megagametes
        
        Produced by meiosis
        
        oogamous plants
        
        have seperate individuals to produce male and female gametes
        
        Male
        
        microgametophyte
        
        1 more item...
        
        Female
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        1 more item...
        
        Heterospory: having 2 types of spores
        
        Alteration of generations
        
        a life cycle with two generations
        
        Heteromorphic generations
        
        Gametophytes do not resemble sporophytes
      - Flower structure
        
        Flower
        
        Basically a stem with leaf-like structures
        
        Never become woody
        
        No secondary growth
        
        Pedicel
        
        Flower stalk
        
        Receptacle
        
        The very end of the axis where the other flower parts are attached
        
        Floral appendages
        
        Complete flowers
        
        Have all 4 types
        
        Sepals
        
        Lowermost and outermost appendages
        
        Modified leaves
        
        Surround and enclose other flower parts as they mature
        
        Typically the thickest, toughest, and waxiest
        
        All sepals together= calyx
        
        Petals
        
        Above sepals on the receptacle
        
        Make up the corolla
        
        Sepals+petals=perianth
        
        Leaflike, broad, flat, and thin
        
        Contain pigments other than chlorophyll
        
        Attract the correct pollinators
        
        Have specific size, shape, and colors
        
        Stamens
        
        Above the petals
        
        Collectively form the androecium
        
        Referred to as the "male" parts of the flower
        
        Produce pollen, but not gametes
        
        Have two parts
        
        Filament
        
        stalk
        
        Anther
        
        where pollen is produces
        
        Composed of diploid cells
        
        Carpels
        
        Constitute the gynoecium
        
        Located at the highest level on the receptacle
        
        Three parts
        
        Stigma
        
        Cathches pollen grains
        
        style
        
        Elevates the stigma to a useful position
        
        ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        Contains placentae
        
        1 more item...
      - Gametophytes
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        Male
        
        Microspores develop into microgametophytes
        
        Microspore nucleus
        
        migrates to the side of the pollen grain next to the wall
        
        Divides mitotically
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pollen grain
        
        lands on a stigma
        
        germinates by producing a pollen tube
        
        penetrates the loose open tissues of the stigma
        
        1 more item...
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Embryo sac
        
        a multinucleate megagametophyte
        
        One large central cell
        
        with two polar nuclei
        
        Three small antipodal cells
        
        Egg apparatus
        
        Two synergids
        
        Egg
      - Fertilization
        
        Plasmogamy
        
        Fusion of the protoplast of the gametes
        
        Karyogamy
        
        Fusion of the nuclei
        
        Double fertilization
        
        Both sperm nuclei undergo fusions
      - Embryo and seed development
        
        Suspensor
        
        Formed by the zygote growing into a small cluster of cells
        
        Pushes the embryo deep into the endosperm
        
        Cells at one end will divide mitotically
        
        Forming an embryo
        
        The end of the embryo farther from the suspensor
        
        initiates two primordia
        
        1 more item...
        
        Heart stage
        
        Torpedo stage
        
        A short axis is established with a
        
        3 more items...
        
        Seeds
        
        Albuminous
        
        a mature seed in which endosperm is abundant
        
        Exalbuminous
        
        Endosperm is sparse or absent at maturity
      - Fruit development
        
        Formed from a maturing ovary
        
        Three layers become distinct during growth
        
        Exocarp
        
        Outer layer
        
        Skin or peel
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Flesh/middle layer
        
        Endocarp
        
        Innermost layer
        
        May be thin
        
        May be thick and tough
        
        E.g. cherry pit
        
        Pericarp
        
        entire fruit wall
        
        May contain all three layers, or one or two may be absent
    - - Cross pollination
        
        Pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
        
        Results in increased genetic diversity
      - Self pollination
        
        Pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or plant
      - Compatibility barriers
        
        Chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
        
        Inhibits self pollination
      - Essential organs
        
        Stamens and carpels
        
        produce critically important spores
        
        if either is absent, sexual reproduction is dramatically affected
        
        These are called incomplete/imperfect flowers
        
        Perfect flower
        
        contains both
      - Nonessential organs
        
        sepals and petals
        
        do not produce spores
      - Dioecy/ Dioecios plants
        
        These species have individuals that produce ONLY either staminate or carpellate flowers
        
        Life cycle consists of 4 types of plants
        
        1) microgametophytyes
        
        2) megagametophytes
        
        3) staminate sporophytes
        
        4) carpellate sporophytes
        
        Ensures cross pollination
      - Monoecy/ monoecious plants
        
        have staminate and carpellate flowers on the same plant
      - Animal-Pollinated flowers
        
        resulted in mutations for pigments, secretions, and fragrances
        
        Increases probability of pollination as compared to wind
        
        Coevolution
        
        Plants/insects become adapted to better suit each other
        
        E.g flower shape
        
        Radially symmetrical
        
        bilaterally symmetrical
      - Wind pollinated flowers
        
        No need to attract pollinators
        
        Saves energy to be used elsewhere
        
        grow and dense populations in range lands or forests
    - - Inflorescence
        
        many flowers grouped together
        
        Gives a collective visual signal to pollinators
        
        Two basic arrangements
        
        determinate inflorescence
        
        has only a limited potential for growth
        
        because the apex is converted to a flower
        
        Indeterminate inflorescence
        
        new flowers continue to initiate from the apex
    - - True fruits and accessory fruits
        
        True fruit
        
        Contains only ovarian tissue
        
        Accessory fruit
        
        Contains any type of non-ovarian tissue
        
        Simple fruit
        
        Develops from a single ovary, or the fused ovaries of one flower
      - Classification of fruit types
        
        Dry fruit
        
        Not typically eaten by normal seed-dispersing animals
        
        Further classification
        
        Dehiscent
        
        break open to release the seeds
        
        Indehiscent
        
        have to be mechanically broken open
        
        Fleshy fruit
        
        are eaten during the natural seed distribution process
- - - - Parenchyma Cells
        
        Have only thin primary walls
        
        Chlorenchyma Cells = Parenchyma with chloroplasts
        
        Transfer Cells = short distance material movement
      - Chlorenchyma Cells
        
        Primary wall may thicken in some areas
        
        Functions in plasticity
        
        Present in shoot tips
      - Sclerenchyma
        
        Has a primary wall + thick secondary wall
        
        walls can be deformed and return to original shape
        
        can develop from parenchyma
        
        Function in returning plant to original shape
        
        Mechanical Sclerenchyma
        
        Contains fibers and sclera's
        
        Hold Shape
        
        Protoplast usually dies after second wall is in place
        
        Conducting Scherenchyma
        
        Transport water
        
        Vascular Cell
    - - Nodes
        
        Where Leaves are attached
      - Internodes
        
        Space between nodes
      - Bud scales protect bud
    - - Grow by stem growth at tips
        
        Apical meristems
        
        Subapical meristem is right underneath
        
        Protoderm= young epidermal cells
        
        Provascular tissues
        
        Young cells of Xylem and Phloem
        
        Ground meristem
        
        Growth stages of pith and cortex
        
        Produces Primary tissues
    - - Epidermis= outermost circle
        
        Water retention
      - Cortex
        
        Interior to epidermis
      - Vascular Tissue
        
        Functions in material movement between cells
        
        Xylem
        
        Conducts water and mineral
        
        Tracheid
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Phloem
        
        Distributes sugars and minerals
        
        Sieve cells
        
        Sieve tube members
  - - - meristem for secondary growth
      - Fascicular Cambium
        
        Between metaxylem+metaphloem
        
        Cells Constantly divide
        
        Cells don't mature
        
        provascular tissue
      - Interfascicular Cambium
        
        Parenchyma between vascular bundles
        
        cells resume mitosis
        
        pith
      - Fusiform Initials
        
        Long, tapered cells
        
        divides into two cells
        
        one remains fusiform initial
        
        Secondary Xylem
        
        Inner to cambium
        
        Wood
        
        Secondary Phloem
        
        outer to cambium
        
        cork
        
        organized in horizontal rows
      - Ray initials
        
        Short, cuboidal
        
        Divides into two cells
        
        One remains ray initial
        
        Xylem rays
        
        Inner to cambium
        
        Phloem Rays
        
        Outer to cambium
        
        mainly produces parenchyma
        
        Organized in short vertical rows
    - - Primary tissues
        
        Epidermis
        
        Primary plant body
        
        Growth by apical meristem
        
        Cortex
        
        Vascular bundles
        
        Leaves
        
        Pith
      - Secondary tissues
        
        Produced from vascular cambium, cork cambium
        
        Trees
        
        Constitute secondary body
        
        Allows growth in height and width
        
        Shrubs
    - - =all cells formed interior of the vascular cambium
      - AKA wood
      - Similar to primary xylem, just arranged differently
      - Axial system
        
        Derived from fusiform initials
        
        contains tracheal elements
        
        tracheids
        
        Vessel elements
        
        longitudinal water conduction
      - radial system
        
        Derived from ray initials
        
        parenchyma
        
        carb storage
        
        other material storage
        
        material transport
      - hardwoods
        
        strong
        
        lots of fibers
        
        basal angiosperms
        
        eudicots
      - Softwoods
        
        Few or no fibers
      - Growth rings
        
        early wood
        
        first wood formed
        
        lots of wide vessels or tracheids
        
        late wood
        
        less vessels
        
        stronger
        
        wood formed generally in one year time
    - - formed from vascular cambium
      - Axial system
        
        Conduction up and down root
        
        sieve tube members
        
        companion cells
      - Radial system
        
        Storage parenchyma
    - - Cork Cambium
        
        aka phellogen
        
        all cuboidal cells
        
        inner cell
        
        remains cork cambium after mitosis
        
        outer cell
        
        becomes a cork cell
        
        aka phellem
        
        Pelloderm
        
        inner parenchyma
      - Inner bark
        
        all tissue inside cork cambium
      - all tissue outside cork cambium
- - - - The science of inheritance
        
        Different genes=alleles
        
        Genotype
        
        The set of alleles for a particular individual
        
        Phenotype
        
        Physical representation of a gene
      - Replication of DNA
        
        DNA is replicated
        
        S Phase
        
        Doubles the amount of DNA
        
        Each gene has 2 copies
        
        One will go to daughter cell
        
        Chromatic becomes less compact
        
        Opening
        
        Allows replicating factors in
        
        DNA helix is cut
        
        Strands separate
        
        From a bubble
        
        1 more item...
        
        Free nucleotides bond to bases
        
        Ribonucleotides
        
        Form primes RNA
        
        3 more items...
        
        replication fork
        
        where double helix separates, and re-attatches
        
        Ligated DNA
        
        all attached via covalent bonds
      - Mutations
        
        Mutation=
        
        any change in DNA
        
        point mutation
        
        Changes a single base
        
        Deletion
        
        a base is removed
        
        insertion
        
        a base is added
        
        inversion
        
        a base becomes backwards
        
        causes
        
        called mutagens
        
        ultraviolet light
        
        X_rays
        
        radiation
        
        transposable elements
        
        readily change positions between chromosomes
        
        insertion sequences
        
        code for enzymes
        
        involved in cutting sequence
        
        code for proteins
        
        not associated with transposition
        
        effects
        
        possibly none
        
        codon change can = same codeing
        
        can can eliminate genes
        
        can element start codons
        
        larger tyoically= more dangerous
        
        Somatic mutations
        
        not involved in sex cells
        
        does not ass mutation
        
        DNA repair processes
        
        remove mutations
      - Monohybrid crosses
        
        cross
        
        sexual reproduction between 2 individuals
        
        only a single character is analyzed and studies
        
        eg flower shape, or color
        
        Parents
        
        parental generation
        
        offspring
        
        F1 generation
        
        homozygous
        
        two identical alleles
        
        2 dominant
        
        2 recessive
        
        Heterozygous
        
        two different alleles
        
        1 dominant
        
        1 recessive
        
        Crossing heterozygotes
        
        selfing
        
        a plant uses its own pollen to create its own eggs
        
        or
        
        crossing 2 plants with the same genotype
        
        Punnett Square
        
        can be set up to display ossicle phenotypes
        
        Dominant gene
        
        shows
        
        takes control
        
        recessive gene
        
        hides
        
        overshadowed by dominant
      - Dihybris crosses
        
        2 genes are studies simultaneously
        
        genes on same chromosome
        
        independent assortment
        
        alleles move independently considering gene
        
        switching over
        
        greater between long distance cells
        
        aka crossing over
        
        recombinant chromosomes
        
        new chromosomes formed
        
        parental chromosomes
        
        parent cells
        
        linkage
        
        2 genes on a chromosome
        
        no independent assort.
        
        called being linked
      - multiple genes for 1 character
        
        aka quantitive trait loci
        
        epistasis
        
        multiple genes for each trait
        
        pleiotropic effects
      - maternal inheritance
        
        genes of both parents passed to offspring
      - lethal alleles
        
        can kill a plant
  - - - Population Genetics
        
        Alleles within a population
        
        abundance+distribution
        
        Changes in abundance
        
        Sexual reproduction
        
        2 different genotypes parents
        
        increased genetic diversity
        
        Same genotype in parents
        
        No change in genetic diversity
        
        Factors changing gene pool
        
        mutations
        
        decrease in existing allele frequency
        
        one new mutation can become a large number of alleles
        
        accidents
        
        events to which an organism can't adapt
        
        e.g. meteor strike
        
        Can completely kill a specific allele
        
        may cause no change to gene pool
        
        depending on general population
        
        artificial selection
        
        humans changing allele frequency
        
        E.g. crop breeding
        
        to get most desirable qualities
        
        continued use of artificial selection leads to large, permanent changes in gene pool
        
        Natural selection
        
        most significant factor
        
        most adapted organisms survive+reproduce
        
        offspring must outnumber ecological threshold
        
        plants must have different alleles
        
        e.g. fungus outbreak kills plants not fungal resistant
        
        can't be purposely planned
      - Rates of evolution
        
        typically takes more than a few generations
        
        some plants hardly ever change
        
        some plants change rapidly
        
        mutations don't often change populations
      - Speciation
        
        so much change in one species over time
        
        leads to an entirely new species
        
        a species
        
        does not produce fertile offspring with another species
        
        Phyletic speciation
        
        one species gradually changes into a new one
        
        requires millions of years
        
        one beneficial allele must spread throughout the entire population
        
        =gene flow
        
        pollen transfer
        
        pollen carries genomes and all alleles
        
        may be spread by wind
        
        1 more item...
        
        may be spread by animals
        
        2 more items...
        
        seed dispersal
        
        can be carried in different ways
        
        4 more items...
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        divergent speciation
        
        Reproductive isolation
        
        alleles arising in one population cannot reach other populations
        
        Abiological reproductive barriers
        
        any physical, nonliving prevention of gene exchange
        
        allopatric or geographic speciation
        
        e.g. mountains
        
        biological reproductive barriers
        
        any biological phenomenon preventing gene flow
        
        e.g. difference in flower color, shape, or fragrance
        
        a different color flower may throw off pollinators
        
        aka sympatric isolation
        
        e.g. evolutionary changes in pollinators
        
        prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        prevent pollen flow, thus a zygote is never even formed
        
        post zygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        continued evolution of different subspecies
        
        1 more item...
        
        hybrid sterility
        
        1 more item...
        
        certain populations of a species evolve into a new species
        
        adaptive radiation
        
        a species rapidly diverges into over an extremely short period of time
        
        usually occurs when a species enters a new habitat
        
        e.g. new hawaiian islands
        
        founder individuals
        
        first parents in new territory
        
        lack of competition and outside threats
        
        allows great diversification
        
        called genetic drift
        
        may occur in mainlands
        
        if dominant species is wiped out
        
        convergent evolution
        
        two unrelated species follow the same evolutionary path
        
        same phenotypes favored
      - Evolution and the origin of life
        
        chemosynthesis
        
        uses known chemical and physical processes
        
        rejects divine intervention
        
        suggests the pre-life earth chemical could react spontaneously
        
        forming complex chemicals
        
        complex chemicals continue to react
        
        give rise to life maintaining chemicals
        
        give rise to primitive protocells
        
        would require 4 conditions
        
        1) the right inorganic chemicals
        
        2) appropriate energy sources
        
        3) lots of time
        
        4) an absence of molecular oxygen
        
        produces chemicals
        
        leads to production of
        
        amino acids
        
        sugars
        
        lipids
        
        nitrogen bases
        
        earth conditions pre-life
        
        Chemicals present
        
        second atmosphere
        
        produced from rock matrix composing earth
        
        hydrogen sulfide
        
        ammonia
        
        methane
        
        water
        
        reducing atmosphere
        
        due to
        
        2 more items...
        
        energy sources
        
        sun
        
        intense UV and gamma
        
        knocks electrons
        
        1 more item...
        
        heat
        
        coalescence of gas and dust
        
        radioactive decay of heavy elements
        
        electricity
        
        lightning
        
        due to
        
        2 more items...
        
        time available
        
        basically infinite
        
        no molecular oxygen=no chemical decomposition
        
        polymers
        
        produced in
        
        hot oceans
        
        ice
        
        due to high monomer concentration
        
        aggregation
        
        chemicals forming into masses
        
        basically formed at random
        
        leads to organization
        
        leads to metabolism
        
        due to enzymes
        
        first enzyme producers would have an evolutionary advantage
        
        oxygen
        
        current atmosphere produced from early second atmosphere
        
        all free iron on earth had to be oxidized first
        
        a long period of rusting
        
        an oxidizing atmosphere
        
        life
        
        evolved from nonliving compounds
        
        when?
    - - Consists of communities and their physical environments
    - - a group of individuals of the same species
      - Are rarely stable
    - - Different populations existing together
        
        Plants
        
        Animals
        
        Fungi
    - - Habitat
        
        the set of conditions in which a plant completes its life cycle
        
        includes migratory situations
        
        spores
        
        pollen
        
        seeds
        
        Exact area is highly debated
        
        operational habitat
        
        aspects that DIRECTLY impact the plant
        
        pollinators
        
        disease
      - Abiotic Componets
        
        Climate
        
        often restricts plants to certain regions
        
        mainly reliant on extreme temperatures, not average
        
        moisture
        
        Tolerance range
        
        area between highs and lows of climate factors
        
        Soil factors
        
        soil formed by breakdown of rock
        
        new soil is a tough environment
        
        sandy
        
        low water holding
        
        low nitrogen
        
        as plants die, soil increasingly gets better
        
        pioneers
        
        first plants that invade a new soil
        
        must tolerate severe conditions
        
        Horizons
        
        different soil levels
        
        A horizon
        
        zone of leaching
        
        litter and debris
        
        water transports nutrients down from here
        
        B horizon
        
        Zone of deposition
        
        Materials from A horizon accumulate here
        
        Contains humus and clay
        
        C Horizon
        
        mostly parent rock and rock fragments
        
        Latitude and Altitude
        
        Latitude
        
        Closer to equator
        
        no seasonal change
        
        12 hour days
        
        higer radiation
        
        Higher latitudes
        
        Summer days longer
        
        winter nights longer
        
        species can be sensitive to photoperiod
        
        less radiation
        
        disturbance
        
        phenomena such as:
        
        fire
        
        can lead to fresh growth
        
        Landslides
        
        Avalanches
        
        Floods
        
        Produces radical change
        
        Can eliminate many individuals
        
        Can change soil composition
        
        little or no impact on abiotic factors
        
        lat + long
        
        climate
        
        Can be man made
        
        hunting
        
        herbicides
        
        insecticides
        
        habitat destruction
      - Biotic commonest
        
        plants
        
        Can be beneficial or detrimental
        
        E,g, canopy trees prevent growth underneath
        
        Other plants species
        
        can coexist in different relationships
        
        Mutualism
        
        beneficial for both organisms
        
        competitions
        
        disadvantageous for both
        
        competition for same resources
        
        Competitive exclusion theory
        
        better adapted plants use out the less adapted
        
        May be minimal
        
        each individual has its own niche
        
        Theory 2
        
        plants have an exclusive range to themselves, which is not used by other plants
        
        long term results:
        
        should be species modification
        
        2 more items...
        
        organisms other than plants
        
        Fungi
        
        pathenogenic
        
        spread disease to the plant
        
        mutualism
        
        mychorizae
        
        receives carbs
        
        gives plants phosphates
        
        Animls
        
        mutualism
        
        pollenators
        
        seed dispersal by fruit eating animals
        
        frugivores
        
        Commensal relationships
        
        One species benefits, the other is unaffected
        
        e.g. birds nesting in trees
        
        predation
        
        one species benefits, the other is harmed
        
        animals eating plants
        
        herbivores
        
        e.g. insects laying eggs in plants
        
        larvae feed on plant
        
        prokaryotes
    - - Geographic distribution
        
        Dependent on the plants:
        
        adaptations
        
        abiotic and biotic components of the area
        
        One factor may limit the plants health
        
        this is called the limiting factor
        
        can be any factor in an ecosystem
        
        e.g. excess water
        
        does not= excess plant growth
        
        may be biotic factors
        
        e.g. plants can't exist where their pollinators do not exist
        
        may be soil factors
        
        may produce abrupt boundaries
        
        e.g. beaches, limestone
        
        local geographic distribution
        
        small scale, local distribution of individuals
        
        random distribution
        
        no pattern to the position of individuals
        
        has no predictive value
        
        clumped distributions
        
        plants distances from each other are either close or distant, not average
        
        e.g. seeds fall close to parents
        
        e.g. birds take seeds far away from the plants
        
        uniform distribution
        
        e.g. orchards and tree plantations
        
        all individuals are evenly spaced from the others
        
        not very common in natural populations
        
        those that do occur naturally:
        
        establish zones
        
        can be established by roots
        
        can be established by chemicals
        
        1 more item...
      - age distribution: demography
        
        the relative proportions of young, middle-aged, and old individuals
        
        may be measured in exponential numbers
        
        generation time
        
        the length of time from the birth of one individual to the birth of its first offspring
        
        annuals- generation time of 1 year or less
        
        conifers+ angiosperms= several years
        
        intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        aka biotic potential
        
        number of offspring produced by an individual that live ling enough to reproduce
        
        is generally a large number
        
        measured under ideal conditions
        
        carrying capacity
        
        the number of individuals that can live in a specific ecosystem
        
        symbolized by K
      - r and k selections
        
        r selections
        
        produced by a disturbance
        
        e.g. fire or flood
        
        leaves plentiful resources
        
        r selected species
        
        typically annuals or small shrubby perennials
        
        K selections
        
        conditions in a crowded habitat
        
        population is close to its carrying capacity
    - - physiognomic structure
        
        physical size and shape of organisms and their distribution to each other and the physical environment
        
        trees
        
        shrubs
        
        herbs
      - temporal structure
        
        the changes an ecosystem undergoes with time constitute
        
        can be as short as a day
        
        more useful for animas
        
        can encompass seasons or decades
        
        seasons more useful for plants
        
        spring= renewed activity
      - Species compositions
        
        number of diversity of species that coexist in an ecosystem
        
        depends on climate
        
        mild
        
        intense competition
        
        stressful
        
        low number of species
        
        depends on soil
        
        rich
        
        intense competition
        
        poor
        
        low number of species
        
        depends on species tolerance range
        
        broad
        
        narrow
      - trophic levels
        
        basically= feeding levels
        
        autotrophs
        
        bring energy into the ecosystem
        
        mainly by photosynthesis
        
        chemosynthetic bacteria
        
        bring in chemical energy
        
        known as primary producers
        
        primary consumers
        
        herbivores
        
        consume autotrophs
        
        secondary consumers
        
        consume primary consumers
        
        carnivores
        
        decomposers
        
        fungi and bacteria
        
        break down remains of all types of organisms
        
        energy flow
        
        movement of energy throughout the ecosystem
    - - Community
        
        a group of species that occur together at the same time and place
        
        has boundaries in both time and place
        
        space
        
        e.g. a forest
        
        time
        
        communities come and go
        
        can exist within another community
        
        succession
        
        a species changes a communities ecology, better outing it for other organisms over time
        
        climax community
        
        a community that exists throughout time
        
        maintained by various processes and species working together
        
        e.g. completion, mutualism, etc.
        
        community restoration
        
        humans attempting to preserve nature as we attempt to live within it
        
        e.g. re-introducing wolves into yellowstone
        
        habitat loss, habitat fragmentation
        
        as humans expand, and so thing necessary for life, habitats are inevitably impacted for better or worse
        
        can be reduces via the study of habitat ecology
      - Community ecology
        
        examines species and their interactions with other species
      - Diversity
        
        the number of species within a community
        
        can be extremely hard to measure
        
        checklists
        
        a count of species within a community
        
        always incomplete
        
        impossible to list all organisms within a community
        
        Diversity and scale
        
        scale
        
        larger areas are more diverse than smaller ones
        
        1 more item...
        
        generally described in several distinct sizes
        
        3 more items...
        
        species abundance distribution
        
        2 more items...
        
        diversity and latitude
        
        far northern areas have much fewer species
        
        higher latitudes have more severe climates
        
        also due to ice coverage
        
        also due to habitable land coverage
        
        1 more item...
        
        as the earth evolved into its current state, zones became cooler
        
        2 more items...
        
        areas near the equator are a more temperate climate
      - Predator-prey interactions
        
        One predator, one prey
        
        simplest form of interaction
        
        helps humans understand how we should harvest our prey
        
        a preys populations size controls the growth of their lone predator
        
        described by the Lotka-Volterra model
        
        dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        dN/dt
        
        rate of change with time of the prey population
        
        when equal to 0, this line on a graph illustrates predator population that will keep the prey population stable
        
        r
        
        intrinsic rate of increase for the prey species
        
        N
        
        number of individuals of prey species in the community
        
        a
        
        predators per capita attack rate
        
        p
        
        number of predator individuals present
        
        net rate of change in prey numbers
        
        dP/dt=faNP-qp
        
        dP/dt
        
        rate of change with time of the predator population
        
        =0 means the population will be stable
        
        f
        
        a constant indicating the predators efficiency at converting the prey it has eaten into new predators
        
        q
        
        the predators mortality rate(independent of population density
        
        often criticized for being too simplistic
        
        Rosenzeig-Macarthur model
        
        adds more factors
        
        zero growth isoclines are curves rather than straight lines
        
        paradox of enrichment
        
        a prey species becomes so overabundant that a predator overexploits the resource
        
        maximum sustained yield
        
        harvesting just enough of something to maintain its population density
        
        not enough is known to determine the correct amount
        
        fixed effort harvesting
        
        only harvesting for a maximum amount of time or effort to maintain population size
        
        e.g. hunting seasons
        
        fixed quota harvesting
        
        only allowing a certain number of something to be harvested
        
        functional response
        
        predators feeding rate
        
        how quickly a predator finds new prey
        
        will be faster with more prey available
        
        predators handling time
        
        time needed for the predator to consume the prey
        
        is prey dependent
        
        dependent on prey density
        
        zero growth isocline
        
        illustrates the effects of prey density on predator populations
        
        predator selection among multiple prey
        
        most animals can and will eat multiple varieties of plants
        
        three factors are initially important
        
        probability that a certain prey will be encountered
        
        abundant species more readily consumed
        
        decision by the predator to attack an individual
        
        probability that an attacked prey will be successfully eaten
        
        studied by optimal foraging theory
        
        produced an optimal diet model
        
        1 more item...
        
        competition between species
        
        exploitation competition
        
        organisms consume a shared resource
        
        makes the resource less available for other organisms
        
        interference competition
        
        one organism restricts another organism's access to a resource
        
        the first organism may not even use the resource
        
        competing species can coexist
        
        invasive species
        
        can increase from very ow population numbers even with a competitor present
        
        resource
        
        any substance or factor that cn lead to increased growth rates as its availability is increased
        
        apparent competition
        
        plants growth rates are dependent on those of other plants, so,
        
        it appears they are in competition, but plants obviously are not
      - beneficial interactions between species
        
        mutualism
        
        both organisms benefit
        
        e.g. pollinators and the plants they pollinate
        
        facilitation
        
        one organism helps another without receiving any benefit
        
        e.g. beavers creating ponds
        
        plants and animals surviving in the pond benefit, but the beaver doesn't benefit from them
        
        nurse plants
        
        alter a small area of habitat below them that benefits other plants
        
        plants that benefit could eventually kill the nurse plant
        
        primary succession
        
        as new areas are created, the initial plants that colonize help create more livable soil
        
        not as well developed by mathematic models
        
        changing the previous models would create a model to infinity
        
        all relationships come at a cost
        
        those with less cost are benefited by natural selection
      - Metapopulations in patchy environments
        
        the world is patchy
        
        geographical regions separate areas that could be inhabited by the same species
        
        source habitat
        
        high quality patch
        
        sink habitat
        
        low quality patch
        
        some species may inhabit patches for short periods of time before moving on to new ones
        
        fugitive species
        
        migration between patches is common
        
        assisted dispersal
        
        the planned moving of organisms between patches
        
        metapopulations
        
        several local populations connected by migration and gene flow between patches
        
        modeled by four assumptions
        
        a region of the environment is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
        
        some patches are occupied by the species, other suitable patches are not
        
        empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
        
        populations within individual patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
      - interconnectedness of species: food chains and food webs
        
        typically at least three trophic levels:
        
        primary producers
        
        e.g. plants
        
        produce their own energy
        
        primary consumers
        
        eat primary producers for energy
        
        secondary consumers
        
        eat primary consumers for energy
        
        food chain
        
        a direct line of consumption for one predator
        
        food web
        
        all the networks of interrelationships for a species
        
        energy flow web
        
        like a food web, but traces the total flow of energy
        
        difficult to create for actual communities
        
        food webs and energy flo webs are typically for illustration purposes, and are typically incomplete
        
        keystone species
        
        have a profound impact on the food relationships of the community relative to their population size
- - - - began evolving early to avoid drought
        
        water proofing cuticle
        
        simultaneous with evolution of stomata/gaurd cells
        
        Multicellular body
      - Also escaped predators in the water
      - Likely gave rise to ancestors of vascular plants
    - - Do not have vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Phloem
      - Reproductive cells surrounded by layers of sterile cells
      - Bodies composed of parenchyma
        
        growth from apical meristem
      - Almost exclusively terrestrial
      - cuticle covering most of their bodies
      - Many with stomata
      - Life cycle stages
        
        Gametophyte
        
        The larger stage, or the "plant stage
        
        haploid
        
        photosynthetic
        
        absorb minerals
        
        Sporophyte
        
        very small
        
        only absorb minerals
        
        from gametophyte
        
        limited photosynthesis
        
        not enough to support their own growth
        
        Only present certain times of the year
      - very small size
        
        allows thriving in microhabitats
        
        E.g on rocks or trees
        
        other plants cannot survive here
    - - Three divisions
        
        Division Bryophyta:Mosses
        
        occur in all parts of the world and almost every environment
        
        metabolism and ecology
        
        low water retention
        
        growth in permanately moist habitats
        
        1 more item...
        
        desiccation-tolerant
        
        dormancy
        
        2 more items...
        
        different habitats
        
        on rocks
        
        1 more item...
        
        in low temperatures
        
        perennial
        
        Morphology
        
        Gametophores grow close together
        
        form dense mounds
        
        contain leaves
        
        are not homologous of vascular plants
        
        aligned in three rows
        
        Contain a midrib
        
        multiple cells thick
        
        One cell thick
        
        Except at midrib and along margin
        
        Cuticle
        
        Only on top surface
        
        little protection against desiccation
        
        No stomata
        
        grow from apical meristem
        
        apical meristem contains a prominent apical cell
        
        Stems and leaves grow in precise arrangements
        
        Stems
        
        Slender
        
        Little tissue differentiation
        
        All tissues are called cortex
        
        Walls
        
        Somewhat thickened
        
        Water transport
        
        Hyroids
        
        Conduct water and dissolved minerals
        
        Elongated cells
        
        Lose cytoplasm when mature
        
        End walls
        
        Partially digested
        
        Leptoids
        
        resemble sieve cells
        
        elongated
        
        Interconnections with adjacent cells
        
        Lack nuclei at maturity
        
        Only occur in some mosses
        
        Majority of mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
        
        water is conducted along the exterior of their stems by capillary action
        
        Development
        
        Gametophore growth
        
        Begins when a spore germinates
        
        Send out a long chlorophyllous cell
        
        2 more items...
        
        Reproduction
        
        Sperm
        
        produced in antheridia
        
        may be washed to new gametophore by rain
        
        may swim to new gametophore
        
        break out of antheridium at maturity
        
        Eggs
        
        occur in archegonia
        
        bisexual plants have eggs+sperm on same gametophore
        
        some species have male or female gametophores
        
        Gametophore Generation
        
        Sporophyte Generation
        
        supported by gametophyte
        
        never independent or free living
        
        foot
        
        the interface with the gametophore
        
        gametophore provides nutrients
        
        developed from the basal cell
        
        upper cells grow into the capsule
        
        inner+outer layer of sterile cells
        
        meiotic sporogenous cells in-between
        
        1 more item...
        
        sporophyte
        
        morphologically simple
        
        structurally complex
        
        true epidermis
        
        1 more item...
        
        operculum
        
        3 more items...
        
        homosporous
        
        all spores look alike
        
        Division Hepatophyta: Liverworts
        
        apical meristem formed after a few cells have formed
        
        gametophore phase
        
        two groups
        
        leafy liverworts
        
        thin leaves
        
        3 more items...
        
        slender stem
        
        2 more items...
        
        thallose liverworts
        
        flat and ribbon like
        
        body referred to as a thallus
        
        1 more item...
        
        air pores
        
        1 more item...
        
        sporophyte generation
        
        little variability exists
        
        basic morphology is basically the same as mosses
        
        have a foot, seta, calyptra covered sporangium
        
        has no stomata
        
        some cells undergo meiosis
        
        differentiate into elaters
        
        1 more item...
        
        Division anthocerotophyta: Hornwarts
        
        usually hidden
        
        100-150 named species
        
        Gametophyte generation
        
        as few as 3-4 protonema produced before this stage is established
        
        always thin
        
        ribbon or heart shaped
        
        parenchymatous
        
        not resistant to drying
        
        winter annulas
        
        appear in autumn months
        
        grow in winter
        
        die before sumer
        
        numerous internal chambers
        
        get invaded b Nostoc bacteria
        
        a symbiotic relationship
        
        Sporophyte generation
        
        foot embedded in gametophore tissue
        
        no setae or discrete sporangium
        
        meristem
        
        above the foot
        
        continually produces new sporangium tissues
        
        forms a long horn like cylinder
      - not known how closely related each division is
      - Formerly grouped in one division with three classes
  - - - Dibiontic life cycle
        
        All known fossil plants
        
        each species has a multicellular gametophyte and sporophyte
        
        all extant plants
      - monobiontic Life cycle
        
        includes some algae
        
        has only one multicellular generation
        
        zygote cannot undergo mitosis and form a sporophyte
        
        embryophytes
        
        from monbiontic to dibiontic
        
        interpolation hypothesis
        
        a small sporophyte came into existence when a zygote germinated mitotically instead of meiotically
        
        the sporophyte generation would then gradually evolve to become more complex
        
        transformation theory
        
        sporophyte generation became more complex after the dibiontic life cycle originated
      - Early vascular plants
        
        Rhyniophytes
        
        homosporous
        
        no separate micro and megaspores
        
        equal dichotomous branching
        
        both branches are equal size and vigor
        
        epidermis with a cuticle
        
        cortex of parenchyma
        
        multicellular masses of sporogenous tissue
        
        at the ends of branches
        
        surrounded by a layer of sterile cells
        
        Cooksonia, Rhynia, Aglaophyton
        
        Xylem structure
        
        Endarch protostele
        
        Protoxylem
        
        located in the center
        
        metaxylem
        
        differentiates on the outer edge
        
        Exarch protostele
        
        Metaxylem
        
        located in the center
        
        protoxylem
        
        located along the edges
        
        protostele
        
        solid mass of xylem with no pith
        
        siphonostele
        
        pith is present in the center
        
        Zosterophyllophytes
        
        small herbs
        
        no secondary growth
        
        lateral sporangia
        
        sporangia open transversely along the top edge
        
        xylem= exarch protostele
      - The Microphyll line of evolution: lycophytes
        
        Morphology
        
        Large enations
        
        up to 4 cm long
        
        probably increased photosynthesis
        
        Microphylls
        
        ambiguously called leaves
        
        Single, well developed trace of vascular tissue
        
        true roots
        
        anchoring
        
        more growth
        
        absorbtion
        
        extinct lycophytes
        
        some exhibit secondary growth
        
        Lateral sporangia
        
        Exarch protostele
        
        Heterospory
        
        Cones, or strobili
        
        clustered groups of sporangia
        
        provides protection
        
        having both micro and megaspores
        
        is necessary for the evolution of seeds
        
        evolved convergent characteristics with seed plants
        
        leaves
        
        roots
        
        secondary growth
        
        Extant Genera
        
        Lycopodium
        
        Approximately 200 living species
        
        small herbs
        
        Prostrate Rhizomes
        
        Selanginella
        
        less common
        
        often mistaken as mosses
        
        small size
        
        Ligule
        
        small flap of tissue
        
        no known function
        
        Isoetes
        
        quillworts
      - The Megaphyll line of evolution: Euphyllophytes
        
        Trimerophytes
        
        similar to rhyniophytes, but have several important features
        
        Overtopping
        
        one stem is more vigorous
        
        Pseudomonopodial branching
        
        One single trunk instead of a series of Dichotomies
        
        Origin of Megaphylls
        
        Megaphylls
        
        Leaves evolved from branch systems
        
        present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytes
        
        telome theory
        
        Telomes
        
        the ultimate twigs
        
        planation
        
        all lateral branches become aligned in one plane
        
        webbing
        
        parenchyma develops between between telomes
        
        Euphyllophytes are united by three synapomorphies
        
        exarch xylem
        
        have megaphylls
        
        have an inversion of their plastid DNA
        
        Monilophytes
        
        ferns
        
        fern allies
        
        Equisetophytes
        
        Horsetails or scouring rushes
        
        herbs with no secondary growth
        
        usually less than 1m tall
        
        aerial stems have a jointed structure
        
        Sporangiophore
        
        sporangia in groups of 5-10
        
        Monopodial growth
        
        Ferns
        
        Can be found in almost any habitat
        
        small leaves
        
        contain large amounts of vascular tissue
        
        Sori
        
        on the underside of the leaf
        
        clusters of sporangia
        
        meiosis occurs here
        
        Provide both photosynthesis and as sporophytes
        
        typically homosporous
        
        two types of sporangia
        
        eusporangium
        
        Leptosporangia
      - The term vascular cryptograms
        
        ferns and fern allies
        
        have vascular tissue
        
        Hidden reproduction
        
        crypto
        
        lack seeds
    - - Lignophytes
        
        woody plants
        
        Monophyletic groups of woody plants
      - Spermatophytes
        
        Seed plants
      - Suites of characteristics
        
        Cycads and their relatives
        
        large compound leaves
        
        radially symmetrical seeds
        
        Manoxylic wood
        
        soft, spongy, parenchymatous
        
        conifers and their relatives
        
        pycnoxylic wood
        
        hard, strong, little parenchyma
        
        small, simple leaves
        
        flattened seeds
      - Classes of division Spermatophyta
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        ovules located on flat sporophylls
        
        e.g. pine cones
        
        Angiosperms
        
        flowering plants
        
        have carpels
        
        believed to bu tube-like sporophylls
      - Division Progymnospermophyta: Progymnosperms
        
        Give rise to
        
        gymnosperms
        
        conifers
        
        cycads
        
        other gymnosperms
        
        megaphyllous leaves
        
        vascular cambium
        
        unlimited growth potential
        
        capable of secondary xylem and phloem
        
        Aneurophylates
        
        from shrubs to trees
        
        up to 12 m tall
        
        Archaeopteridales
        
        trees
        
        up to 8.4 m tall
        
        abundant wood and secondary phloem
        
        heterosporous
        
        Evolution of seeds
        
        Chauleria
        
        oldest known pro gymnosperm
        
        390 million years ago
        
        integument
        
        surrounds megasporangium
        
        micropyle
        
        a hole in the integument
        
        allowed sperm to reach the egg
        
        polle chamber
        
        space at top of megasporangium
        
        where microspores collected
      - Division Pteridospermophyta: seed ferns
        
        First appeared in the Upper Devonian Period
        
        are not all closely related to each other
        
        form a grade rather than a clade
        
        grade
        
        a level of evolution
        
        clade
        
        share a common ancestors
        
        had a long lived vascular cambium
        
        produced xylem and phloem
        
        wood
        
        longer tracheids
        
        manoxylic
        
        Leaves
        
        large
        
        compound
        
        planar
        
        bear seeds
      - Division Coniferophyta: Conifers
        
        very diverse
        
        trees
        
        moderate to gigantic size
        
        Leaves
        
        Simple needles or scales
        
        often perineal
        
        Simple venation
        
        Pines
        
        Monopodial trees
        
        one main trunk
        
        many branches
        
        wood
        
        exclusively tracheids
        
        still provides annual rings
        
        shoot types
        
        long shoots
        
        tiny papery leaves
        
        in their axil
        
        short shoots
        
        1 more item...
        
        cones
        
        pollen cones
        
        simple cones
        
        single, short, unbranched axis
        
        bear microsporophylls
        
        seed cones
        
        compound cones
        
        consist of a shoot with auxiliary buds
        
        short axis
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pollen
        
        Arrives before the egg is mature
      - Division Cycadophyta: Cycads
        
        Often confused with ferns or young palm trees
        
        Short plants
        
        less than 1 or 2m tall
        
        trunk
        
        covered with bark
        
        covered with leaf bases
        
        produce seed cones and pollen cones
        
        each on different plants
        
        always dioecious
        
        Approx. 100 species
      - Smaller Divisions
        
        Division Cycadeoidophyta: Cycadeoids
        
        Almost identical to cycads
        
        subtle differences in stromatal complexes
        
        Division Ginkophyta: Maidenhair tree
        
        single living species
        
        Ginko biloba
        
        Looks like a dicot tree
        
        Has wood similar to conifers
        
        Division Gnetophyta
        
        Contains three groups of enigmatic plants
        
        Mostly vines or small shrubs
        
        Broad leaves similar to dicots
    - - Changing concepts about early angiosperms
        
        Hypothesis of the ranalean flower
        
        C.E. Bessey
        
        Around 100 years ago
        
        A Magnolia type flower thought to be relictual, or generalized
        
        it has all parts
        
        sepal
        
        petal
        
        stamens
        
        Arranged spirally
        
        carpels
        
        Transition from gymnosperm to angiosperm
        
        believed to have occurred during the Mesozoic era
        
        approximately 130 million years ago
      - Angiosperms contain the largest number of living species
        
        Division Magnoliophyta
        
        257,000 species
      - Angiosperm Carpels
        
        Edges of sporophyte primordia grow shut
        
        Closed carpel
        
        closes so completely that no sign of a seam remains
        
        Develops a fruit that encloses the embryos as they develop into seeds
      - Double fertilization
        
        Second per of the pollen produces the endosperm nucleus
      - Vesselless plants
        
        have wood without vessels
        
        Two types
        
        Primary
        
        Vesselless because their ancestors were
        
        Secondary
        
        Lost vessels on their own
      - Features
        
        Pistils
        
        fusion of carpels into a single structure
        
        Sympetally
        
        Fusion of petals into one structure
        
        Floral zygomorphy
        
        flowers that are bilaterally symmetrical
      - Classification of flowering plants
        
        Monocots
        
        Have only one cotyledon on each embryo
        
        Their leaves typically have parallel veins
        
        vascular bundles are distributed throughout the stem
        
        Never have ordinary secondary growth and wood
        
        Flower parts arranged in multiples of three
        
        Eudicots
        
        reticulate venation in the leaves
        
        Have two cotyledons for each embryo
        
        vascular bundles occur in only one ring on the stem
        
        may be woody, herbaceous, or succulent
        
        Flower parts occur mostly in sets of 5
        
        Basal angiosperms
        
        reproductively separate from the other angiosperms
      - Basal Angiosperms
        
        Ancestors became reproductively isolated from the other groups
        
        Water Lillies
        
        Pollinated by animals
        
        Uniaperturate
        
        Pollen grains have only a single germination pore
      - Monocots
        
        Lack ordinary secondary growth and wood
        
        Perianth
        
        three outer members
        
        Three inner members
        
        Called tepals
        
        typically remain free, don't fuse
        
        Alismatales
        
        aquatic herbs and aquarium plants
        
        found in swamps and marshes
        
        partly or entirely submerged
        
        no transpiration
        
        Do not produce fibers
        
        air bubbles
        
        Make the plant buoyant
        
        Liliales
        
        Spots or lines on the petal
        
        1300 species
        
        Asparagales
        
        Septa
        
        fused carpels
        
        Open to secrete nectar
        
        septal nectaries
        
        Morphologically diverse
        
        Commelinoid Monocots
        
        have unique types of epicuticular wax
        
        Arecales
        
        The palms
        
        Solitary trunk
        
        Scattered vascular bundles
        
        Leaves occur only near the shoot apex
        
        Poales
        
        Includes wheat, corn, rye
        
        Wind pollinated
        
        Sepals and petals of little importance
        
        Carpals are fused together
        
        Zingiberales
        
        Large, showy flowers
        
        Adjacent sepals
        
        fused to each other to form a tube
        
        Bilaterally symmetrical
        
        Petals fused
        
        Three carpels
        
        Fused
      - Eudicots
        
        Tricopolate
        
        have three germination pores
        
        Basal Eudicots
        
        Caryophyllales
        
        Produce betalains
        
        water-soluble pigments
        
        Perisperm
        
        nucellus cells proliferate to form nutritive tissue
        
        Santales
        
        highly modified, mostly parasitic plants
        
        may be holoparasitic
        
        have no chlorophyll at all
        
        Rosid clade
        
        Fabids
        
        Malvids
        
        pinnately compound leaves
        
        e.g. roses
        
        Asterid Clade
        
        e.g. sunflower
        
        no betalains
        
        iridoid compounds
        
        produce chemicals to deter or kill animals
        
        two groups of orders
        
        lamiids
        
        campanulids