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Chapter 1 (Stages of Learning (Cognitive stage: The beginner is mentally…

- - - - Can be classified according to the precision of the movement and the size of musculature: gross motor skills or fine motor skills
        
        Gross Motor skills: Involve the recruitment of large muscle groups, there is less emphasis on precision
        
        Fine Motor skills: Involve the recruitment of smaller muscles associated with movements requiring precision
    - - Discrete Motor skills: Have an obvious beginning and end
      - Serial Motor skills: Sometimes several discrete skills are performed in a sequence, this combination of discrete skills is classified as a serial motor skill
      - Continuous Motor skills: Have no definite beginning or end point, and include activities such as walking and running. Sometimes beginning and end points are assigned, such as in a 100 m running race, but the actual motor skill is continuous
    - - Best represented as a continuum, with closed motor skills at one end and open motor skills at the other
      - Closed motor skills: Classified according to the extent to which they are influenced by environmental factors. Closed motor skills are those where the performer has the greatest control over the performance environment. This relates to external factors such as the weather, playing surface and opposition.
      - Open motor skill: The opposite of a closed motor skill is an open motor skill, which is performed in a less predictable environment. In an open environment, the conditions are constantly changing and the performer has limited, if any, control over their environment
- - - - Breaking a skill into segments can be very useful for beginners, who may become overwhelmed by a complex task. When the beginner is able to achieve quick success with these smaller segments of the task, this can help to maintain, or even increase, motivational levels
      - Choosing a practice type: When deciding whether to practice a task in parts or as a whole, wo factors need to be considered: task complexity and task organisations
        
        Task Complexity: When a motor skill has several components, it may be appropriate to break the task into segments. However, task organisation also needs to be considered before a decision
        
        Task Organisation: Refers to how dependent each segment is on the previous segment. Not all tasks can be successfully broken down into individual segments. For example, a cartwheel in gymnastics would lose its rhythm if part particle were applied.
    - - Distributed practice: involves shorter but more frequent training sessions. More time is also allocated to rest between tasks during the session. This model is generally adopted by full-time professional teams. Research has shown that this type of practice scheduling creates a better learning environment.
      - Massed practice: Involves less frequent training sessions that last for a longer period of time. Rest intervals between tasks are also shorter than in distributed practice.
        Most non-professional team sports use this method because they need to schedule training around the varied work, school and family commitments of team members. Physical and psychological fatigue is more likely to result form massed practice
    - - Similar to the law of diminishing returns, as a performer moves into the associative and possibly autonomous stages, their rate of improvement will slow.
      - Given the positive relationship between practice and improvement, it is important for coaches to maximise practise sessions.
        'Time on task' is an important consideration for any coach planning a practice session aimed at skill development
    - - In most training sessions several skills will be practiced . The coach then needs to decide whether it is best to practise one of these skills for a set number of repetitions (blocked practice) before moving to the next skill, or to mix the skills up (random practice) during the training session
        
        Blocked practice: Involves practising the same skill continuously without changing to a different task. Each skill is practised in a block, in insolation from other skills, before moving on to the next skill.
        
        Blocked practice is an appropriate strategy for beginners who are trying to understand and reproduce the movement action. In this situation, the environment should be kept as stable as possible, reducing the impact of factors such as wind and uneven surfaces.
        
        If a skill such as a volleyball spike would usually be performed in a more open environment, then it is best to remove the inconsistencies of a random setting by removing factors such as opposition, and perhaps have someone feed volleyballs at an appropriate height for spiking. This more closed environment should enable the beginner to quickly replicate the basic foundations of the movement pattern
      - Random practice: Is varied sequencing of different motor skills in the same training session. So in volleyball, it is not performing five spikes, then five digs, then five sets, which would still be blocked practice. Random practice could be dig, set, dig, spike, spike, set, dig, set, spike, dig, dig, set, spike, spike, set!
        
        Random practice is suitable for performers in the associative and autonomous stages. However, greater learning, via a delayed retention test, was seen in the group under the random practice regime
      - Transfer of practice: Practice that closely resembles the game will result in a greater transfer of skills from training to game. However, constant 'practice games' will not necessarily result in skill development transfer. Repetitive 'full on' practice games can lead to boredom, decreased motivation and increased risk of injury.
        
        Beginners may benefit more from reducing some of the environmental factors that would usually be present in a game, such as the opposition,
        
        Performers in the associative or autonomous stages of motor skill development will benefit most from practice that resembles some component of the game. Team-orientated strategies and tactics can be introduced at this level.
- - - - Is when performers use their own senses to assess performance, including visual, auditory, proprioception and touch
      - This is always available to the performer if they understand the goal of the task
      - E.g. when executing a tennis serve, the performer can see whether the ball goes into the desired area of the court; they can hear the sound made by the ball hitting the racquet; tactile senses allow the performer to feel their grip on the racquet; and proprioceptors provide feedback on body positioning.
    - - Feedback can greatly enhance a performer's own internal feedback system.
      - E.g. the tennis serve example, a coach can provide external feedback on how to correctly grip the racquet. This gives the performer a reference point for their internal feedback system.
      - Can occur during or after a performance. if the feedback occurs during the activity, it is called concurrent feedback.
        An example, could be a triathlete their split times during the run or cycle phase of the triathlon
        Terminal feedback is provided after the performance, such as a coach telling a tennis player to toss the ball higher after a serve.
      - Can be further classified as either knowledge of results or knowledge of performance
        
        Knowledge of results refers to specific feedback about the outcome of the task, as opposed to feedback relating to performance characteristics. This feedback is particularly beneficial for learners trying to develop new skills.
        
        For a learner trying to develop a topspin tennis serve, the coach could give feedback on the amount of topspin achieved on each serve. This will enable the learner to align intrinsic feedback to the goal of the task
        
        As the task outcome improves and their own internal feedback system develops, the learner will become less reliant on results feedback. Knowledge of results feedback can sometimes become annoying to performers who able to analyse their own outcome results
        
        Knowledge of performance relates to the characteristics of performing a task, as opposed to the specific outcome of the task.
        
        A tennis coach may tell their student to increase the height of the ball toss when serving in order to achieve greater topspin, or to tuck tighter in a dive to increase rotational speed.
        
        Knowledge of performance results are generally delivered after the task has been completed. This feedback can take several forms depending on the aim, form a few simple coaching 'cues' to reviewing video footage. Learning styles should be taken into consideration when delivering external feedback.
    - - Most feedback from coaches will be verbal , regardless of learning style. Feedback should be clear, precise and limited in the information it offers. Overly complicated feedback will only confuse the performer.
      - All learners respond well to positive reinforcement. In any communication it is important that the learner views feedback as genuine. This is particularly important when offering positive reinforcement
      - It is important to monitor how much feedback is given. Although beginners need a lot of feedback, they should not be allowed to develop an over dependence on it.
    - - When a learner is in the cognitive stage, they will initially have limited ability to detect and correct errors, and will develop the skill more quickly with frequent augmented feedback.
      - As the skill starts to progress, the learner needs to develop their own ability to detect errors. Coach feedback is still important, but it should not be given as frequently, enabling the performer to develop their own error detention abilities