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Botany Course MindMap, Transport Processes (Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active…

- - - - allow all solutes to diffuse
    - - isolation barrier
        
        do not allow anything to pass through
    - - differentially
        
        allow only certain substances to pass through
  - - - requires ATP (energy)
      - often used to pump molecules against concentration gradient
      - example: proton pumps in photosynthesis/ respiration
  - - - migrate through cytoplasm
        
        fuse with other organelles
        
        vesicle contents transferred into organelle
        
        example:ER to dictyosomes
- - - - considered one continuous mass
  - - - allows easy passage of small molecules
  - - - water diffuses into guard cells
        
        guard cells open
  - - - flexing/folding in response to stimuli
      - location of flexure
        
        midrib
        
        point petiole attaches to lamina or stem
  - - - larger surface area
        
        room for many molecular pumps
        
        high volume transport
        
        found in:
        
        glands that secrete salt
        
        areas that pass nutrients to embryos
        
        regions of sugar loaded into/ out of phloem
- - - - water molecules interact with other water molecules
    - - water interacts with many other molecules
  - - - open stomatal pores
        
        unavoidably allow water loss
      - water diffuses from intercellular space to atmosphere
        
        transstomatal transpiration
      - transcuticular transpiration
        
        some water loss directly through cuticle
  - - - liverwort
  - - - water column breaks
        
        soil dry
        
        air dry
    - - space between water molecules drawn up from cavitation point
      - and molecules drawn down from cavitation point
  - - - primary means of carrying nutrients upward
      - transpiration prevents heat stress in leaves #
- - - - 3 components: Ψ=Ψπ + Ψp + Ψm
        
        pressure potential (Ψp)
        
        effect that pressure has on water potential
        
        water under pressure = pressure potential ^ = water potential ^
        
        pressure ˅ = pressure potential ˅ = water potential ˅
        
        when something is compressed pressure is positive
        
        when something is stretched pressure is negative
        
        measured in megapascals (MPa) or bars
        
        1 megapascal=10 bars or 10 atmospheres
        
        osmotic potential (Ψπ)
        
        effects that solutes have on water potential
        
        water interacts with solutes
        
        osmotic potential always negative
        
        cannot diffuse easily
        
        matric potential (Ψm)
        
        water's adhesion to non-dissolved structures
        
        cell walls
        
        membranes
        
        soil particles
        
        adhesion decreases water's free energy
        
        matric potential always negative
        
        water moves from regions of +Ψ to -Ψ
  - - - more negative=more solutes
    - - absorbing water until the cell bursts
        
        plant cells can never burst
        
        cell walls strong enough to resist breakage
        
        cells grow rather than burst
    - - cell loses water and shrinks
      - incipient plasmolysis
        
        protoplast lost enough water to pull from cell wall
      - plasmolyzed
        
        protoplast pulls completely from cell wall
        
        cell shrinks
- - - - sugars
        
        sieve tube members
        
        sieve cells
        
        polymer trap mechanism
        
        phloem loaded by diffusing into conducting cells
        
        polymerized into polysaccharides
        
        cannot diffuse back out
      - STM/CC complex
        
        functional unit
        
        conducting cell
        
        one or several companion cells
      - mass transfer
        
        amount sugars/ nutrients (excluding water) transported per hour
      - specific mass transfer
        
        mass transfer divided by cross-sectional area of phloem
      - sinks
        
        sites that receive transported phloem sap
        
        extremely diverse
        
        P-protein
        
        becomes tangled mass
        
        seals phloem rupture
        
        P-protein plug
        
        too large to pass sieve area & forms a plug
        
        callose
        
        stays in solution under pressure
        
        injury causes pressure loss
        
        callose precipitates into flocculent mass
    - - sites water and nutrients are transported
        
        spring/ summer
        
        leaves are dominant sources
        
        before new leaves
        
        sources are storage sites
        
        tubers
        
        corms
        
        wood/bark parenchyma
        
        fleshy taproots
- - - - 257,000
    - - Magnoliophyta
        
        a.k.a. Angiospermopyta
    - - primordia crowd
        
        grow shut
        
        sometimes visible suture
        
        sometimes no sign of seam
        
        called closed carpel
        
        develops into fruit
    - - universal in flowering plants
    - - primitively vesselless
        
        having wood w/out vessels
        
        lacked vessels b/c ancestors lacked them
      - secondary vesselless
        
        had vessels
        
        groups then lost them
    - - pistil
        
        fusion of carpels
      - sympetally
        
        fusion of petals
      - zygomorphy
        
        bilaterally symmetrical
- - - - wind-pollinated trees
        
        grouped togetther
        
        "subclass Hamamelidae"
        
        alders
        
        elms
        
        oaks
        
        plane trees
        
        concidered most relictual (a relic)
        
        living flowering plants
  - - - Magnolia-type flower was relictual
      - flower generalized
        
        has all parts:
        
        sepals
        
        petals
        
        carpels
        
        arranged spirally
- - - - only 1 cotyledon on each embryo
      - leaves usually parallel veined #
      - vascular bundles throughout stem
        
        not restricted to one ring
      - leaves elongate and strap shaped #
      - never have ordinary secondary growth
      - flower parts arranged in multiples of 3:
        
        three sepals
        
        three petals
        
        three stamens
        
        three carpels
    - - two cotyledons
      - reticulate venation
      - vascular bundles one ring in stem
      - can be:
        
        woody
        
        herbaceous
        
        succulent
      - flower parts arranged in sets of 5 or 4
        
        rarely in sets of 3
- - - - water lilies
        
        small soft bodied herbs
        
        vascular bundles like monocots
        
        lack any wood
    - - pollen grains with single germination pore
        
        basal angiosperms
        
        monocots
- - - - perianth members
  - - - many regrouped to Asparagales
    - - smaller clade
      - 11 families
      - 1300 species
    - - spots/lines on petals
      - ordinary nectaries
        
        at base of tepals/stamens
  - - - found in swamps and marshes
      - partially or entirely submerged
  - - - most form nectaries unusually
        
        septa
        
        carpels fuse side by side
        
        starting at bases
        
        do not fuse all the way up
        
        open areas secrete nectar (septal nectaries)
  - - - yams
  - - - family Arecaceae
        
        the palms
        
        3500 species
        
        solitary trunk (only few species have branched trunks)
        
        scattered vascular bundles
        
        leaves occur at shoot apex
        
        simple leaves #
        
        pinnate pattern (feather palms)
        
        palmate pattern (fan palms)
        
        flowers
        
        seldom seen
        
        usually tiny (5mm) across
    - - contains:
        
        grass family Poaceae
        
        8,000 species
        
        hollow from top to ground
        
        includes most food:
        
        wheat (Triticum)
        
        barley (Hordeum)
        
        oats (Avena)
        
        rye (Secale)
        
        corn (Zea)
        
        rice (Oryza)
        
        sugar cane (Saccharum)
        
        farmed crops as early 10,000 years ago
        
        grass seeds account for 50% of all calories
        
        cattle raised on grassland and corn
        
        wind pollinated
        
        sepals & petals
        
        little importance
        
        reduced to bristle-like structures
        
        cattails (Typha)
        
        grow in:
        
        ponds
        
        marshy areas
        
        bromeliads
        
        beautiful tropical epiphytes
        
        large brightly colored inflorescences
        
        occur only in the Americas
        
        sedges and rushes
        
        Cyperaceae
        
        sedges w/4,000 species
        
        have edges
        
        stems triangular in cross section
        
        Juncaceae
        
        rushes
        
        are round
        
        and solid
        
        plants of:
        
        wet marshy areas
        
        tiny reduced flowers
        
        small dry fruits
    - - most familiar of all houseplants
        
        Maranta
        
        Calanthea
        
        canna lilies (Canna)
        
        banana (Musa)
        
        bird-of-paradise (Strelitzia)
      - large showy flowers
        
        pollinated by insects,birds, or bats
        
        bilaterally symmetrical
        
        3 carpels fused almost entirely
        
        adjacent sepals often fused
        
        forming a tube
        
        same is often true of flowers
- - - - distinctive features:
        
        pollen grains
        
        3 germination pores (tricolpate)
        
        or some condition derived from tricolpate mechanism
        
        flower parts arranged in whorls
        
        stamens have well defined filament (stalk)
  - - - flowers have little fusion of parts
        
        many stamens and carpals
        
        stamens may remain free
        
        or fuse together
        
        or fuse to carpels
      - buttercups
      - windflower (Anemone)
      - Clematis
    - - ornamental species
        
        Argemone (prickly poppy)
        
        Eschscholzia (California poppy)
        
        Papaver (Poppies)
        
        Papaver somniferum (opium poppy)
        
        milky latex
        
        opium
        
        morphine is extracted from opium
        
        strong analgesic (pain killer)
        
        herbs or shrubs
        
        soft wood
    - - sever families believed to be basal eudicots
        
        large trees
        
        reduced wind-pollinated flowers
        
        usually in dangling inflorescences
        
        many staminate flowers
        
        few carpellate flowers
      - Platanaceae, sycamore (a.k.a. plane trees, Platanus)
        
        small inconspicuous clusters of flowers
        
        mature into tiny dry fruits
  - - - cacti (Cactaceae)
      - iceplant (Aizoaceae)
      - portulaca (Portulacaceae)
      - bougainvillea and four-o'clocks (Nyctaginaceae)
      - spinach, beets, Russian thistle (Amaranthaceae)
      - carnations and chickweed (Caryophyllaceae)
      - especially important characteristics
        
        other flowers have anthyocyanin pigments
        
        Caryophyllales produce water-soluble pigments (betalains)
        
        perisperm
        
        nucleus cells proliferate
        
        form a nutritious tissue
        
        surrounds developing embryo
        
        phloem plastids contain deposits of fibrous protein
  - - - highly modified
        
        most are parasitic
    - - large tree Santalum
        
        sandalwood incense
        
        roots make fine connections to surrounding plants #
        
        parasitizes them
    - - Christmas decorations
      - have chlorophyll and are photosynthetic
        
        hemiparasitic
      - holoparasitic
        
        having no chlorophyll
  - - - two large clades
        
        fabids (a.k.a. eurosids I)
        
        malvids (a.k.a. eurosids II)
      - contain more than 100 families
      - no highly relictual features
      - pinnately compound leaves
      - 14 large orders
      - 50,000 species
  - - - sister clade to rosids
        
        distinguished by 3 features:
        
        sympetalous flowers
        
        petals fused together in a tube
        
        few stamens
        
        not more than number of petal lobes
        
        stamens alternate with petals
        
        exploit specialized pollinators
    - - animal deterent
    - - grouped into orders (Cornales, Ericales)
      - two groups of orders
        
        lamiids (also called eusterids I)
        
        campanulids (euasterids II)
      - extremely important medically
        
        Apocynaceae (oleander family)
        
        periwinkle (Vinca)
        
        extracted:potent cancer drugs
        
        vinblastine
        
        vincristine
- - - - 1) neither vascular tissue or seeds
        
        liverworts #
        
        hornwots
        
        mosses
    - - 2) vascular tissue but no seeds
        
        scouring rushes
        
        ferns
        
        clubmosses
    - - both vascular tissue and seeds
        
        gymnosperms
        
        angiosperms
        
        cyads
- - - - hetermorphic generations
        
        sportophyte & gametophyte differ structurally
    - - sporangia
      - gametangia
      - surrounded by one/several layers of sterile cells
        
        bodies=true parenchyma
        
        almost exclusively terrestrial
        
        cuticle over much of their body
        
        many have stomata
- - - - mosses
    - - hornworts
    - - liverworts
- - - - occuring in all parts of the world
      - in almost every environment
      - perennial
    - - gametophores
        
        leafy stems
    - - hydroids
        
        innermost cortex cells
        
        conduct water/ dissolved minerals
        
        elongated cells
        
        no cyctoplasm
        
        end walls partially digested
      - leptoids
        
        cells that resemble sieve cells
        
        elongate
        
        lack nuclei
        
        retain cytoplasm
      - majority of mosses lack hydroids & leptoids
        
        water conducted through capillary action
        
        along exterior of stems
        
        leaves/ stems very small
        
        form narrow spaces
        
        act as capillary channels
        
        rhizoids
        
        located base of stem
        
        small/ multicellular
        
        trichome-like structure
        
        penetrate substrate surface
        
        only anchor stem
        
        1 more item...
    - - begins when a spore germinates
        
        sends out long, slender chlorophyllous cell
        
        undergoes mitosis
        
        produces branched system of similar cells
        
        protonema (plural, protonemata)
        
        entire network
        
        resembles filamentous green alga
        
        distinguished by numerous small chloroplasts
    - - gametophore
        
        produces gametangia
        
        all mosses oogamous
        
        small biflagellate sperm cells
        
        produced in microgametangia
        
        called antheridia
        
        2 more items...
        
        large nonmotile egg cells
        
        occur in megagametangia
        
        called archegonia
        
        3 more items...
  - - - undergoes a transverse division
        
        basal cell develops into
        
        small bulbous tissue
        
        called the foot
        
        interface w/ gametophore
        
        absorbs sugars, minerals, and water from gametophore
        
        upper cell grows by cell division
        
        expansion into a simple apical sporangium
        
        1 more item...
  - - - small size
      - lack of conducting tissues
      - several mechanisms compensate
        
        for inability of mosses to retain water
        
        grow in permanently moist microhabitats
        
        tolerant of desiccation
        
        desiccated mosses resistant to high/ low temperature
        
        and intense ultraviolet (UV) light
- - - - leafy liverworts
        
        gametophore resembles moss
        
        two rounded lobes
        
        no midrib
      - thallose liverworts
        
        flat and ribbon like
        
        or heart shaped/ bilaterally symmetrical
        
        body
        
        aka thallus (plural, thalli)
        
        air pores
        
        not stomata
        
        no guard cells
        
        cannot be closed
      - apical cell is established
        
        growth of gametophore begins
        
        bisexual
        
        antheridia
        
        archegonia
        
        or unisexual depending on species
        
        antheridiophore
        
        umbrella-shaped outgrowth
        
        male reproductive structure
        
        archegoniophores
        
        apex of radiating fingers
  - - - foot
      - seta
        
        extremely delicate
        
        clear thin walls
        
        collapse quickly
      - calyptra-covered sporangium
        
        elators
        
        single elongate cells
        
        spring-shaped walls
        
        uncoil pushing spores out
- - - - succulent but brittle
        
        winter annuals
        
        live less than 1 year
        
        after fertilization divides longitudinally
  - - - meristem just above the foot
        
        produces new sporangium tissues
- - - - community remain the same for many years
  - - - farms
      - mines
      - community ecology
        
        may be able to minimize damage
- - - - feeding rate
        
        how quickly to find new prey
      - handling time
        
        time taken to consume prey
      - prey dependent
        
        feeding rate increases with prey available
    - - dN/dt is rate of prey pop change with time
      - r is intrinsic rate of increase of prey species
      - N is prey individuals in community
      - a is predator's per capita attack rate
      - P is predator individuals
    - - line indicating population stability
      - dN/dt=0
      - prey & predator coexist stably
    - - prey zero growth isocline rises
      - predator-prey interaction becomes unstable
      - may lead to predator overexploit of prey
      - both species will be lost
    - - population's maximum per capita productivity
      - inflection point
      - harvest just enough individuals to keep population stable
      - we do not know enough to determine the inflection point
      - fixed effort harvesting
        
        alternative way to determine population health
        
        amount of a species that can be harvested with a particular amount of effort
        
        populations healthy=harvest abundant
        
        populations sparse=harvest poor
        
        harvest must stop after particular effort/time
        
        rely on governments to set effort level
      - fixed quota harvesting
        
        fisherman/hunters allowed harvest particular amount
        
        no matter how long it takes
        
        or how much effort is required
        
        could cause great harm
        
        rely on governments to set quota #
  - - - vertebrate herbivores
        
        can/will eat variety of plants
      - omnivores
        
        eat both plants and animals
        
        humans=widest/diverse diet
    - - interaction between three factors:
        
        1) probability that particular prey is encountered
        
        2) decision to attack individual
        
        3) probability that attacked prey successfully eaten
      - optimal diet model
        
        four predictions:
        
        1) predators prefer prey that yields most energy per handling time
        
        2) if high-yield prey is scarce then, predator more successful by broadening its diet
        
        3) some prey always eaten/ others never eaten even if encountered
        
        4) less profitable prey ignored if more profitable prey is available
  - - - exploitation competition
        
        organisms consume shared resource
        
        less available for other organisms
      - interference competition
        
        one organism restricts access to resource from another
        
        example: leaves blocking light to another organism
      - invasive species
        
        species increases from low to high population density
        
        even with resource competitors present
        
        resource=substance/factors that increase growth rates
  - - - increase in one plant species associated with decrease in others
      - appear to be in competition
      - not actually competing for resources
- - - - reduce population of sea urchins
      - urchin grazing minimized
      - kelp spores allowed to germinate
      - extensive underwater forests
- - - - impossible/unnecessary to catalog every microbe
      - not enough trained specialists
  - - - larger areas more diverse than smaller
        
        alpha diversity-local small site
        
        beta diversity- differences b/t several small sites in a larger region
        
        gamma diversity-number of species in region
    - - relationship b/t area and species
      - S=cAᶻ
        
        S is number of species
        
        A is the area
        
        c & z are constants
    - - plot
        
        number of species
        
        in each abundance class
  - - - tropical regions have benign environments
        
        warm
        
        abundant rainfall
        
        hundreds of millions of years to adapt
      - higher latitudes have more severe conditions
        
        freezing
        
        water stress
        
        only tens of millions of years to adapt
- - - - organisms establishing on new substrates
- - - - migration
      - gene flow b/t patches
    - - preserving endangered species
      - metapopulation crucial
    - - high-quality patch
    - - low-quality patch
    - - survives by colonizing new patches
      - flourishing temporarily
        
        then colonizing new patches
        
        before it dies out in older patches
    - - aka assisted migration
      - animals captured in one area then released into an new area
      - plant seeds or whole plants can be moved
- - - - fascicular cambium
      - interfascicular cambium
  - - - long tapered cells
        
        periclinal wall
        
        anticlinal wall
        
        produce elongated cells of wood
        
        xylem
        
        tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        fibers
        
        phloem
        
        sieve cells
        
        sieve tube members
        
        companion cells
        
        fibers
    - - short & cuboidal
        
        produce short cells
        
        storage parenchyma
        
        albuminous cells
  - - - regular horizontal rows
    - - without horizontal pattern
- - - - all cell types of primary xylem
      - no new ones
      - axial system
        
        derived from fusiform initials
        
        always contains tracheary elements
        
        longitudinal conduction of water
        
        fibers
        
        hardwoods
        
        large amount of fibers
        
        softwoods
        
        few or no fibers
      - radial system
        
        develops from ray initials
        
        usually simple
        
        containing only parenchyma
        
        rays
        
        uniseriate
        
        biseriate
        
        multiseriate
        
        upright cells
        
        procumbent cells
        
        store carbohydrates
        
        store nutrients
  - - - early wood/ spring wood
        
        first wood formed
        
        wide vessels/wide tracheids
      - late wood/summer wood
        
        lower proportion of vessels
        
        numerous fibers/ thick-walled tracheids
      - annual ring/ growth ring
        
        spring & summer wood combined
        
        diffuse porous
        
        vessels form throughout growing season
        
        ring porous
        
        vessels restricted mainly to early wood
  - - - center of log
      - dryer and more fragrant
      - almost always darker in color
      - one annual ring converted to heartwood each year
    - - outer region
        
        lighter in color
        
        moister
        
        new layer formed each year
    - - freezing
      - wind
      - tension
      - wood-boring insects
      - tylosis
        
        bubbles of protoplasm
        
        forms plug in vessels
  - - - tension wood
      - eccentric
        
        wider on top of the branch
        
        prevent drooping
- - - - cork cambium/phellogen
        
        cells are cuboidal
        
        after division inner cell remains cork cambium
        
        outer cell differentiates into cork cell/phellem cell
        
        phelloderm
        
        layer of parenchyma
        
        periderm
        
        cork cambium, cork cells, & phelloderm
        
        outer bark
        
        inner bark
    - - lenticels
        
        permits oxygen to penetrate bark
    - - variable
        
        first cork cambium
        
        depending on species can arise
        
        before twig or root is even 1 year old
        
        region is several years old
        
        epidermises more than 40 years old reported
- - - - not identical to that of stems
- - - - conduction up/down stem/root
        
        sieve tube members
        
        conduct for less than 1 year
        
        companion cells
        
        fibers
        
        nonconducting parenchyma
    - - ray initials
        
        phloem rays
        
        only parenchyma cells
        
        storage
- - - - storage parenchyma increased
      - numerous vascular cambia arise
        
        around individual vessels
        
        large
        
        hundreds of cambia at various ages
        
        irregular matrix of parenchyma
        
        few sieve tubes
        
        some vessels
  - - - located between two bands of xylem
        
        protection from insects
  - - - remains thin in the other two
        
        thin flat woody ribbon
        
        flexibility
  - - - Joshua trees
      - dragon trees
      - palms
      - secondary vascular bundles
        
        develop into fibers
        
        thick secondary walls
  - - - trunks do not taper at tips
      - do not branch
      - all primary tissue
        
        vascular bundles
        
        primary xylem
        
        primary phloem
        
        derived from shoot apical meristem
        
        vascular cambium never develops
        
        true wood does not occur
        
        secondary phloem does not occur
        
        trunk does not grow radially
        
        hard and "woody"
        
        vascular bundle enclosed in strong fibers
        
        3 more items...
        
        ground tissue
- - - - haploid sex cells
        
        produced by meiosis
        
        sperm (microgametes)
        
        produced by males
        
        egg (megagametes)
        
        produced by females
        
        zygote= sperm + egg
        
        syngamy or fertilization
        
        the fusion of gametes
    - - a.k.a. sporophyte generation
        
        diploid phase of plant life cycle
        
        organs (located in the flowers)
        
        capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        produce spores
        
        do not undergo syngamy
        
        undergo mitosis
        
        grows into new haploid plant (gametophyte)
        
        3 more items...
        
        plant (-phyte)
        
        gametes (gameto-)
    - - life cycle with two generations
        
        sporophyte
        
        gametophyte
        
        gametophytes do not resemble sporophytes
        
        alteration of heteromorphic generations
        
        complex life cycle
        
        3 distinct plants
        
        1 sporophyte
        
        2 gametophytes
        
        2 more items...
  - - - never become woody
      - secondary growth does not occur
    - - a flowers stalk
    - - very end of axis
      - other flower parts are attached
    - - sepals
        
        lowermost and outermost appendage
        
        modified leaves #
        
        enclose/ surround other flower parts
        
        protect bud as it develops
        
        calyx
        
        all the sepals together
        
        typically thickest, toughest, and waxiest flower part
      - petals
        
        above the sepals on receptacle
        
        "leaf-like"
        
        contain pigments instead of chlorophyll
        
        attract correct pollinators
        
        distinct size, shape, color, and arrangement
        
        corolla
        
        all petals together
        
        perianth
        
        sepals and petals together
      - stamens
        
        above the petals
        
        technically not "male"
        
        produce pollen
        
        two parts:
        
        filament
        
        1 more item...
        
        anther
        
        1 more item...
        
        androecium
        
        all of the stamens together
      - carpels
        
        constitute gynoecium
        
        collective of parts that produce ovule
        
        located highest level of receptacle
        
        too few or zero carpels=imperfect flowers
        
        too many carpels (fused)=pistil
        
        three main parts:
        
        1) stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
        
        which germinate producing a pollen tube
        
        1 more item...
        
        2) style
        
        elevates stigma to useful position
        
        3) ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        placentae (singular, placenta)
        
        1 more item...
        
        develops into the fruit
  - - - fusion of protoplasts of the gametes
    - - fusion of the nuclei
    - - through style toward ovule
      - guided to ovule's micropyle
        
        penetrates nucellus
        
        reaches egg
        
        integuments that surround nucellus
        
        mature into seed coat (testa)
        
        pollen tube tip bursts
        
        two sperm released
        
        1 sperm nucleus fuses with egg nucleus
        
        diploid zygote
        
        endosperm nucleus
        
        2nd sperm undergoes karyogamy w/central cell
        
        1 more item...
        
        double fertilization
        
        both sperm nuclei undergo fusions
  - - - by both nuclear and cellular divisions
        
        small cluster of cells
        
        embryo proper
        
        continue to divide mitotically
        
        developing into embryo
        
        first arranged in small sphere (globular stage)
        
        two primordia grow into cotyledons
        
        1 more item...
        
        embryo becomes elongate cyclinder (torpedo stage)
        
        1 more item...
        
        vascular tissue differentiates
        
        1 more item...
        
        suspensor
        
        pushes embryo deep into endosperm
        
        delicate
        
        ephemeral (lasting for a short time)
        
        crushed by later growth of embryo
  - - - 3 distinct layers during growth:
        
        exocarp=outer layer (skin/peel)
        
        mesocarp=middle layer (flesh)
        
        endocarp=innermost layer (pit)
        
        pericarp
        
        entire fruit wall
- - - - by pollen from a different individual
  - - - by pollen from
        
        same flower
        
        or another flower from same plant
  - - - anthers stigmas mature at different times
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels
      - prevent pollen growth
        
        if incompatability proteins match
        
        stigma and style block growth of pollen
  - - - produce critically important spores
    - - lack either or both essential organs
    - - has both essential organs
    - - sepals or petals
    - - (dioecious)species with individuals
        
        produce only staminate flowers
        
        produce carpellate flowers
        
        extreme adaptation
        
        ensures cross-pollination
    - - staminate flowers and carpellate flowers
        
        located on same plant
        
        monoecious species
  - - - pigments
      - fragrances
      - sugar-rich secretions
    - - 120 million years ago
      - coevolution between insects and plants
    - - radially symmetrical
    - - billaterally symmetrical
  - - - prevention of petal formation (energy saved)
      - reduced or absent sepals
      - ovaries need no special protection
      - large feathery stigmas (large number of pollen)
      - individuals producing thousands of small flowers
  - - - must be protected from pollinators
      - adaptations that maximize seperation
        
        long styles and stamen filaments
        
        ovaries deep within flower
        
        inferior ovary or other parts epigynous
        
        base of stamens, petals, and sepals fuse
        
        creating thick layer of protective tissues around ovaries
        
        superior ovary or hypogynous parts
        
        partially buried ovaries
        
        half-inferior with perigynous flower parts
- - - - 1) determinate inflorescences
      - 2) indeterminate inflorescences
- - - - gravity
      - wind
      - water
      - animals
  - - - tissues of the fruit
      - regardless of origin
    - - fruits with only ovarian tissue
    - - if any nonovarian tissue is present
    - - fruit from single ovary or fused ovaries from one flower
    - - separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse
    - - all individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
  - - - dry
        
        typically not eaten by
        
        natural seed-distributing animals
        
        dehiscent fruits
        
        break open
        
        release seeds
        
        indehiscent fruits
        
        do not break open to release seeds
      - fleshy
        
        eaten
- - - - multicellular gametophyte
      - multicellular sporophyte
  - - - small sporophyte came into existence
        
        when a zygote germinated mitotically
        
        instead of meiotically
  - - - after origination of the dibiontic life cycle
        
        gametophyte and sporophyte became
        
        larger
        
        more complex
        
        vascularized
        
        life cycle with alteration of isomorphic generation
- - - - Cooksonia a genus of extinct plants
        
        simple upright stems
        
        short cylinders
        
        with no leaves (naked stems)
        
        equal dichotomous branching
        
        both branches
        
        equal size/vigor
        
        epidermis w/ cuticle
        
        cortex of parenchyma
        
        simple bundle of xylem
        
        tracheids w/ annular secondary walls
    - - protostele
        
        solid mass of xylem
        
        no pith
      - endarch protostele
        
        protoxylem located in center
        
        metaxylem differentiates on outer edge
      - exarch protostele
        
        metaxylem located in center
        
        protoxylem on edges
      - siphonostele
        
        evolved later
        
        pith is present in center
        
        as occurs in ferns/seed plants
  - - - no secondary growth
      - lateral sporangia
        
        opened transversely along top edge
      - exarch protostele
      - enations
        
        outgrowths
        
        increased photosynthetic surface area
        
        in Asteroxylon contained stomata
- - - - micro- evolution from small enations
      - enations must have increased photosynthesis #
      - lycophyll has been suggested
  - - - compact groups of sporangia
      - necessary precondition for seed evolution
  - - - fairly common in forests
        
        200 living species
        
        small herbs w/ prostrate rhizomes
        
        true roots
        
        short upright branches
        
        tropical regions to arctic
      - homosporous
        
        spores germinate bisexual gametophytes
        
        produce:
        
        antheridia
        
        archegonia
    - - resurrection plant, S. lepidophylla
        
        heterosporous
        
        ligule
        
        small flap of tissue
- - - - overtopping
        
        unequal branching
        
        one stem more vigorous
      - pseudomonopodial branching
        
        main trunk
        
        rather than a series of dichotomies
  - - - 1) leaves of gametophytes of nonvascular plants #
      - 2) enations/microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
      - 3) megaphylls-leaves evolved from branch systems
        
        present in all seed plants
        
        ferns
        
        and equisetophytes
        
        telome theory
        
        summarizes megaphyll evolution
        
        telomes
        
        ultimate twigs
        
        last dichotomy
        
        planation
        
        subdivisions of lateral branch align in plane
        
        webbing
        
        parenchyma develops between telomes
  - - - megaphyllous plants (euphyllophytes)
        
        united by three synapomorphies:
        
        1) their roots have exarch xylem
        
        2) they have megaphylls
        
        3) 30-kilobase inversion in DNA
        
        monilophytes
        
        lignophytes
        
        woody plants
    - - leptosporangiate ferns
        
        leaf trace diverges from siphonostele
        
        leaf gap
        
        small segment of vascular cylinder
        
        just parenchyma
      - leaves of ferns may be leathery or delicate
        
        once cell thick
        
        upper layer of palisade parenchyma
        
        lower region of spongy mesophyll
        
        sori (singular, sorus)
        
        underside of leaf
        
        cluster of sporangia
        
        site of meiosis
        
        Eusporangia and Leptosporangia
        
        1 more item...
        
        leaves are small (Trichomanes)
        
        several meters long (tree ferns)
        
        almost always compound
        
        rachis
        
        leaflets
  - - - 15 extant species known
        
        horsetails
        
        scouring rushes
        
        all herbs
        
        no secondary growth
        
        sporangiosphore
        
        sporangia in groups of 5-10
      - Calamitales
        
        true monopodial growth
- - - - they have vascular tissue
      - reproduction is hidden (crypto)
- - - - genes replicated
        
        entire chromosomes replicated
      - complex of genes=genome
        
        ---->chromosome
        
        histones
        
        centromere
        
        telomere
        
        chromatid
        
        endoreduplication
        
        large nucleus with many gene copies
        
        24,576 copes of every gene
        
        gene amplification
      - unique sequence
  - - - lasts 3-5 hours
  - - - 1st stage after cell division
- - - - common type of karyokinesis #
        
        Prophase
        
        chromosomes condense
        
        chromosome condensation
        
        opposite pole migration
        
        spindle
        
        kinetochore
        
        Metaphase
        
        chromosomes centered
        
        metaphase plate
        
        separase enzyme activated
        
        digests cohesin
        
        Anaphase
        
        begins after cohesin is digested
        
        spindles shorten
        
        Telophase
        
        nuclear envelopes formed
        
        chromosomes uncoil
        
        reversal of prophase
        
        Cytokinesis
        
        division of protoplast
        
        preprophase band
        
        plane of division
        
        phragmoplast
        
        cell plate
        
        phragmosome
- - - - Prophase I
        
        nucleolus & nuclear membrane breakdown
        
        leptotene
        
        chromosomes condense
        
        zygotene
        
        pairing of chromosomes
        
        homologous chromosome
        
        homolog
        
        synaptonemal complex
        
        synapsis
        
        bivalent
        
        pachytene
        
        chromosomes shorter & thicker
        
        crossing-over #
        
        diplotene
        
        bivalents move away
        
        tangled by chiasmata
        
        tetrads visible
        
        diakinesis
        
        homologs continue to seperate
        
        untangle
      - Metaphase I
        
        tetrads move to center of cell
        
        metaphase plate
      - Anaphase I
        
        chromosomes seperate
        
        cohesin not digested
      - Telophase I
        
        chromosomes start to uncoil
        
        possible interkinesis
        
        no DNA replication
        
        cytokinesis may occur
  - - - Prophase II
        
        prepare nucleus for division
      - Metaphase II
        
        short
      - Anaphase II
        
        separates chromosome from replicate
      - Telophase II
        
        new nuclei formed
- - - - no cell wall
        
        plasma membrane pinches in two
      - cell wall
        
        phragmoplast
        
        forms cell plate
        
        form inward or outward
        
        phycoplast
        
        furrowing or cell plate
- - - - pulled apart as cell grows
    - - plasma membrane pulls inward
        
        pinches in two
- - - - habitat
        
        set of conditions where an organism completes its life cycle
        
        biotic
        
        living factors
        
        abiotic
        
        physical phenomena
        
        nonliving components
        
        operational habitat
        
        aspects of habitat that affect a plant
      - Abiotic Components of the Habitat
        
        Climate
        
        important to all organisms
        
        most species restricted to certain climates/regions
        
        many componenets
        
        temperature
        
        lowest winter/highest summer most important
        
        rainfall
        
        relative humidity
        
        winds
        
        Soil Factors
        
        formed from by breakdown of rock
        
        Initially soil is thin
        
        young soils deficient in nitrogen
        
        pioneers
        
        first plant to colonize new soil
        
        change soil significantly
        
        dead plant parts
        
        carbonic acid from root CO₂
        
        after many years
        
        1 more item...
        
        Latitude and Altitude
        
        affects daylight hours
        
        amount of light energy varies
        
        Disturbance #
        
        fires
        
        landslides
        
        snow avalanches
        
        floods
        
        significant/ radical change in ecosystem
        
        often eliminating many/ all individuals
      - Biotic Components of the Habitat
        
        The Plant Itself
        
        part of habitat
        
        modifies habitat
        
        beneficial
        
        detrimental
        
        neurtral
        
        Other Plant Species
        
        several individuals of one/several species
        
        possibility for interaction created
        
        mutualism
        
        beneficial for both organisms
        
        competition
        
        disadvantageous
        
        1 more item...
        
        competitive exclusion
        
        1 more item...
        
        niche
        
        3 more items...
        
        Organisms Other Than Plants
        
        Animals
        
        fungi
        
        prokaryotes
        
        benificial or detrimental for one or both
        
        mutualism #
        
        pollination
        
        seed dispersal
        
        frugivores=fruit-eating animals
        
        commensal relationships
        
        one species benifits and other is unaffected
        
        bird nests in trees
        
        seed dispersal by sticking to animal fur/feathers
        
        predation
        
        one species benifits and other is harmed
        
        herbivores=plant eater
        
        herbivory=the process of eating plants
        
        browsing=eating twigs and leaves of shrubs
        
        grazing=eating herbs
        
        pathogenic
        
        fungi/bacteria
        
        can cause mild disease or kill plant
        
        saprotrophs-living of dead plant tissues
        
        1 more item...
    - - Georgraphic Distribution(large scale)
        
        Boundaries of the Geographic Range
        
        limiting factor
        
        one factor that determines the health of the plant
        
        any factor in ecosystem can act as limiting factor
        
        Local Geographic Distribution(small scale)
        
        pertains to individuals
        
        random
        
        no obvious pattern
        
        clumped
        
        spacing between plants small or large
        
        rarely average
        
        uniform
        
        all individuals evenly spaced
        
        not common in natural populations
        
        allelochemics and allelopathy
        
        chemicals(allelochemics) that inhibit(allelopathy) other plants
        
        theoretically establish zones
      - Age Distribution: Demography
        
        relative proportions of young, middle-aged, and old individuals
        
        generation time
        
        birth of individual to birth of first offspring
        
        affects rapidity of population growth
        
        intrinsic rate of natural increase (biotic potential)
        
        number of offspring produced by individual that live
        
        does not equal number of seeds produced
        
        carrying capacity
        
        number of individuals that can live in an ecosystem
      - r-and K-Selection
        
        r-Selection
        
        a disturbance
        
        fire
        
        flood
        
        resources plentiful
        
        population growth extrememly rapid
        
        K-Selection
        
        crowded habitat
        
        close to carrying capacity
        
        intense competition
    - - Physiognomic Structure
        
        organisms
        
        physical size
        
        shape
        
        distribution
        
        in relationship with physical environment
        
        life forms
        
        infinate number of combinations of life forms
        
        vertical structures
        
        characteristics
      - Temporal Structure
        
        change that an ecosystem undergoes
        
        can be short (day)
        
        can encompass seasons or decades
        
        over long periods
        
        most ecosystems undergo gradual/dramatic changes
      - Species Composition
        
        diversity of species that coexist
        
        depends on
        
        climate
        
        mild
        
        stressful
        
        soil
        
        rich
        
        poor
        
        species tolerance ranges
        
        broad
        
        narrow
      - Trophic Levels
        
        feeding levels
        
        autotrophs #
        
        bring energy in
        
        primary producers
        
        first step of any food chain
        
        herbivores
        
        primary consumers
        
        plant eaters
        
        secondary producers
        
        preyed on by carnivores/second consumers
        
        decomposers
        
        break down remains of all types of organisms
        
        energy flow
        
        carbon flow
  - - - Crassulaceae
        
        Kalanchoe
        
        Sedum
      - Portulacaceae
        
        Portulaca
        
        Lewisia
      - Aizoaceae
        
        ice plant
  - - - soft
      - flexible
      - edible
    - - hardness
        
        resistant
        
        animals
        
        fungi
        
        freezing temperatures
        
        ultraviolet light
  - - - thick cuticle
      - unpalatable chemical
      - thick cell walls
    - - needles
        
        small, flat, scale-like
  - - - needle shaped
      - no mesophyll parenchyma
      - no vascular tissue
      - closely packed fibers
  - - - can sense contact
        
        does not form lamina
        
        grows around the object
  - - - insectivory
      - obtain nitrogen
    - - incapable of movement
        
        pitcher leaves
    - - move during capture
        
        sundew leaves
- - - - simple leaf
        
        blade of just one part
      - compound leaf
        
        blade divided into several parts
        
        leaflets=many small blades
        
        attached to petiolule & the extension rachis
        
        palmately compound
        
        leaflets attached at same point
        
        pinnately compound
        
        leaflets attached individually to rachis
  - - - holds blade out into light
        
        abscission zone
        
        leaf base/ usually in petiole
        
        cells release enzymes that weaken cell walls
        
        cuts off leaf
  - - - sheathing leaf base
  - - - distribute water/ collect sugars
      - reticulate venation
        
        netted pattern
        
        angiosperms
        
        eudicots
      - parallel ventilation
        
        veins are side by side
        
        monocots
- - - - water loss
    - - sunken into epidermal cavities
    - - retain water/ protection
  - - - main photosynthetic tissue
        
        usually one layer thick
    - - lower portion of leaf
      - loose aerenchyma
        
        CO₂ diffusion
  - - - lateral veins
        
        minor veins
        
        release water from xylem
        
        loading sugar into phloem
      - conduction/ support
    - - fibers around vascular tissue
        
        bundle sheath extension
  - - - 1,3,5+ vascular bundles
    - - two small flaps
- - - - some apical meristem cells grow with primordium
      - hood-like shape
        
        becomes a cylinder
        
        completely encircles shoot apical meristem
  - - - leaf primordium
        
        causes protrusion
        
        leaf protoderm
        
        differentiation
        
        primary phloem
        
        provascular tissue
        
        primary xylem
        
        leaf ground meristem
        
        meristematic
- - - - occur continually
      - existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - new alleles increase
    - - events that an organism cannot adapt
        
        volcanic eruption
        
        flood/ drought
    - - human intervention
        
        purposely change alleles in gene pool
        
        selective breeding
    - - most significant factor
        
        most adapt survive
        
        population must produce more offspring than can survive to maturity
        
        progeny must differ from each other (types of alleles)
      - survival of the fittest
    - - purpose
      - intention
      - planning
      - voluntary decision making
  - - - not caused by single factor
        
        pathogens
        
        drought
        
        insects
        
        temperature change
        
        pollinators
        
        mechanism to disperse seeds
- - - - evolution studies concern gross structures
        
        flowers
        
        leaves
        
        fruits
        
        shoots
        
        trichomes
- - - - gene flow
        
        movement of alleles
        
        pollen transfer
        
        wind-distributed
        
        animal-mediated
        
        seed dispersal
        
        wind
        
        flood
        
        stream flow
        
        rafting
        
        adhesive spines/sticky
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        small mobile
        
        reproduce vegetatively
  - - - alleles in one range do not reach another range
        
        abiological reproductive barriers
        
        physical/nonliving feature
        
        allopatric/geographic speciation=speciation results
        
        biological reproductive barriers
        
        any biological phenomenon
        
        discriminating pollinators
        
        differences in flowering times/date
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        two groups reproductively isolated
        
        even though they grow together
        
        prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        act before zygote can be formed
        
        postzygotic internal isolation barrier
        
        subpopulations can no longer interbreed #
        
        2 more items...
        
        evolutionary changes in pollinators
    - - species rapidly diverges into many species
        
        extremely short time
        
        little/no competition in new habitat
        
        few selective agents
        
        new alleles build up rapidly
        
        genetic drift
        
        subject to accidents
        
        gene pool change rapidly/erratically
      - founder individual(s)
        
        offspring greatly resemble the first
        
        gene pool extremely small
  - - - may favor same phenotypes in each species
        
        cacti
        
        evolved from leafy trees in the Americas
        
        euphorbias
        
        evolved in Africa
        
        Two groups cannot converge to same species
- - - - chemosynthetic theory=hypothesis of the origin of life
        
        slow/gradual transitions
        
        inorganic compounds ----->living bacteria
    - - using only known chemical/ physical processes
      - rejects divine intervention
      - proposed by A. Oparin in 1924
    - - approximately 4.6 Billion years ago
        
        Conditions on Earth Before the Origin of Life
        
        Chemicals Present in the Atmosphere
        
        Earth condensed from gases/dust
        
        composed mostly of hydrogen
        
        light gas (hydrogen) lost to space
        
        second atmosphere
        
        produced from gases in rock matrix
        
        meteorites
        
        molecular oxygen absent
        
        combined with other elements
        
        3 more items...
        
        both sources provided
        
        H₂S
        
        NH₃
        
        still found in volcanic gases & #
        
        CH₄
        
        Energy Sources
        
        Sun
        
        UV/Gamma radiatioin
        
        knock electrons from atoms
        
        creating reactive free radicals
        
        Heat
        
        coalescence of gas/dust
        
        radioactive decay from heavy elements
        
        Electricity
        
        large amounts of lightning
        
        Time Available for the Origin of Life
        
        no limits from lack of O₂
        
        lack of agent to breakdown created chemicals
    - - S. Miller 1953
        
        container
        
        boiling water in bottom
        
        reducing atmosphere in the top
        
        electrodes(stimulate lightning)
        
        cycled for a week
        
        became dark color
        
        complex organic compounds formed
        
        contained amino acids
        
        1 more item...
    - - concentration of monomers
        
        seaside pools
        
        evaporation
        
        water freezing
        
        absorption by clay particles
        
        organic molecules adhere to them
        
        specific orientation
    - - chemical components w/organization and metabolism
        
        like molecules automatically accumulate
        
        hydrophobic material
        
        hydrophilic materials
        
        molecules w/ hydrophilic & hydrophobic regions
    - - heterotrophs
        
        absorbing all material from ocean
        
        modifying few molecules
        
        glycolysis
        
        must have evolved early
        
        present in almost all organisms
    - - evolution of chlorophyll a
        
        O₂ released as waste product
      - approximately 2.8 billion years ago
        
        oxidizing atmosphere
        
        derived from early second atmosphere
        
        addition of O₂ from photosynthesis #
        
        period of rusting
        
        kept free O₂ low
        
        toxic w/out correct mechanisms
        
        UV light + O₂ = Ozone layer
- - - - used to produce new shoot in spring
    - - beets
      - carrots
      - celery
    - - Datura
      - Phlox
      - daisies
  - - - may take months to reach ground
        
        once ground is reached transport nutrients
        
        act as stabilizers
        
        buttress roots
        
        tall
        
        plate-like
        
        brace the trunk
  - - - attached to branches of trees
      - adapted to drought
      - velamen
        
        root epidermis
        
        waterproof barrier
  - - - uppermost portions contract
      - stem is pulled downward
      - root surface becomes wrinkled
  - - - ectomycorrhizal relationship
        
        fungi hyphae penetrate b/t root cortex cells
      - endomycorrhizal association
        
        fungi hyphae penetrate root cortex to caspian strip
        
        invade the cell
        
        do not break plasma/ vacuole membrane
  - - - main growth limiting factor
    - - prokaryotes use N₂ in the air
      - die and decompose=available to plants
    - - nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium)
      - infection thread
        
        penetrates to roots cortex
        
        bacterium enters cytoplasm
        
        proliferates and becomes known as bacteriods
        
        plant and microbe benifit
        
        root nodule
        
        simple
        
        complex
  - - - substrate in the body of another plant
      - haustoria
        
        highly modified roots
        
        secrete adhesive
        
        grow around branch/root
        
        penetrate by forcing shaft of cells through host dermis
        
        make contact with xylem
        
        carry out own photosynthesis
        
        contact phloem and perform little/no photosynthesis
  - - - grow rapidly downward
      - hug the tree trunk
      - months-years roots do not contact soil
        
        penetrate soil rapidly once reached
        
        encase host tree trunk
        
        host tree dies and rots away
        
        strangler fig becomes self supporting tree
- - - - files of cells pushed forward
        
        detect gravity
        
        starch grains settle to lower side of cell
      - simultaneously cells on edge
        
        grow toward side
        
        proliferate
  - - - mitotically inactive
      - believed to be a reserve for healthy cells
      - resistant to harmful agents
      - if apical meristem/ root cap damage
        
        quiescent center cells become active
        
        form new apical meristem
  - - - cells are enlarging
    - - protoderm
        
        epidermis
      - provascular tissue
        
        primary xylem/ primary phloem
      - ground tissue
        
        root cortex
  - - - increasing water absorption
    - - tangential walls
        
        encrusted with lignin and suberin
        
        waterproof the endodermis
        
        known as Casparian strips
    - - between vascular tissue and endodermis
        
        initiate lateral roots
  - - - only casparian strips
      - suspected slow development
- - - - lateral roots
      - branched roots
    - - develops from radicle
        
        embryonic root
        
        carrots
        
        beats
        
        turnips
    - - similarly sized roots #
    - - increase absorbtive and transport capacities
  - - - root tip is region of growth
        
        apical meristem
        
        protected by root cap
        
        dictyosomes
        
        secrete mucigel to lubricate passage of root
        
        through soil
        
        4 more items...
        
        thick layer of cells
        
        renewed by cell multipilication
        
        zone of elongation
        
        just behind root cap
        
        cells undergo division and expansion
        
        root hair zone
        
        behind zone of elongation
        
        epidermal cells extend out
        
        narrow trichomes
        
        root hairs
        
        3 more items...
- - - - pushes outward
        
        breaking through endodermis
        
        forms root cap
        
        protoxylem/ protophloem differentiate
- - - - Parenchyma tissue
        
        most common type of cell/tissue
        
        constitutes all soft parts
        
        soft leaves
        
        petals
        
        fruits
        
        seeds
    - - parenchyma cells w/ chloroplasts
        
        photosynthesis
    - - parenchyma cells that secrete
        
        nectar
        
        fragrances
        
        mucilage=gummy substance
        
        resins
        
        oils
    - - parenchyma cells that mediate transport
        
        large extensive plasma membrane
        
        numerous molecular pumps
        
        increased surface area
        
        extensive knobs
        
        ridges
        
        ingrowths
    - - parenchyma cells that distribute sugars & minerals
  - - - thin/ thick primarily in corners
        
        elongating shoot tips
      - plasticity
  - - - elastic
        
        develop from parenchyma cells
        
        conducting sclerenchyma
        
        mechanical sclerenchyma
        
        long fibers
        
        strength/ flexible
        
        sclereids
        
        brittle/ inflexible
        
        hard/ impenetrable in mass
        
        3 more items...
- - - - leaf axil
  - - - leaves
        
        nodes where leaves are attached
        
        internodes b/t nodes
        
        phyllotaxy=leaf arrangement
      - flowers
      - buds
        
        axillary bud
        
        bud scales
        
        terminal bud
      - stolons/ runners
        
        long and thin
      - bulbs
        
        massive/ fleshy
        
        short shoots
      - corms
        
        vertical thick stems
        
        thin papery leaves
      - rhizomes
        
        fleshy horizontal stems
      - tubers
        
        horizontal nutrient storage
- - - - cutin/ cuticle layer
        
        fatty substance
      - guard cells
        
        stomatal pore
        
        stomata
      - trichomes/ hairs
  - - - homogeneous
      - photosynthetic parenchyma
  - - - xylem
        
        conducts water and minerals
        
        tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        annular thickenings
        
        helical thickening
        
        scalariform thickening
        
        tracheary elements
        
        circular bordered pits
        
        border
        
        extra wall
        
        pit membrane
      - phloem
        
        distributes sugars and minerals
        
        sieve cells
        
        sieve element
        
        sieve pores
        
        sieve areas
        
        sieve tube
        
        1 more item...
        
        sieve tube members
        
        controlled by companion cells
  - - - region of parenchyma similar to cortex
    - - contains xylem and phloem
        
        primary xylem
        
        primary phloem
- - - - protoxylem
      - metaxylem
      - protophloem
      - metaphloem
- - - - loss of electrons
        
        oxidizing agents
        
        NAD⁺
        
        NADP⁺
        
        take electrons from molecules
    - - gain of electrons
        
        reducing agents
        
        NADH
        
        place electrons on molecules
        
        NADPH
    - - tendency to accept or donate electrons
  - - - substrate- level phosphorylation
        
        cytosol
        
        reactions not involving oxygen
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        oxidations with oxygen
        
        mitochondria
      - photophosphorylation
        
        sunlight
        
        chloroplasts
  - - - transport electrons
        
        hydrophobic
        
        dissolve into lipid chloroplast membranes
      - bind protons
    - - carries electrons on copper ion
        
        travels short distance
        
        chloroplast membranes
    - - heme
        
        carries electrons
        
        intrinsic membrane protein
        
        thylakoid membrane
      - iron atom
- - - - electromagnetic radiation
      - radiation
        
        set of particles
        
        quanta (plural)
        
        photons
        
        quantum (singular)
      - pigment
        
        absorbs certain wavelengths
        
        distinctive visible color not absorbed
        
        chlorophyll a
        
        absorbs some red and blue light
        
        absorbs quanta
        
        electron activated
        
        ground state
        
        excited state
        
        5% energy captured
        
        fluorescence
        
        release of light
        
        absorption spectrum
        
        strongly absorbed wavelengths
        
        action spectrum
        
        most effective wavelengths
        
        accessory pigments
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        resonance with chlorophyll a
        
        carotenoids
        
        absorb excessive light
        
        antenna complex
        
        transfers energy to reaction center
      - photosystem I
        
        P700
        
        absorbs red light 700nm
        
        ferredoxin (protein)
        
        ferredoxin-NADP⁺ reductase (enzyme)
      - photosystem II
        
        plastocyanin
        
        cytochrome b6/f complex
        
        Q (quinone)
        
        phaeophytin
        
        P680 reaction center
      - synthesis of ATP
        
        chemiosmotic phosphorylation #
        
        chloroplasts
        
        thylakoids
        
        flattened sacs (disks)
        
        stroma
        
        stack of thylakoids
        
        cyclic electron transport
        
        noncyclic electron transport
        
        ATP synthetase
        
        CF₀-CF₁ complex
- - - - acceptor molecule
        
        ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
        
        RuBP (5 carbons)
        
        and CO₂(1carbon)
        
        RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO)----->
    - - two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules
        
        Anabolic Metabolism
        
        synthesis of polysaccharides
        
        gluconeogenesis
        
        dihydroxyacetone phosphate
        
        fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
        
        fructose-6-phosphate
        
        glucose-6-phosphate
        
        anobolism
        
        anabolic reactions
- - - - color or wavelength
    - - intensity or brightness
    - - hours of sunlight
  - - - high affinity for CO₂
  - - - conservation of water
- - - - plants & animals
  - - - A.K.A. fermentation
      - obligate anaerobes
      - facultatively anaerobic
      - in animal-pyruvate electron acceptor
        
        lactic acid produced
      - in plants/fungi-acetaldehyde electron acceptor
        
        ethyl alcohol produced