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Course Mind Map : (Flowers and Reproduction (Sexual Reproduction: In…

- - - - Alismatales: Contains many aquatic herbs such as Sagittaria and many aquarium plants such as Hydrocharis, Najas, and Hydrilla
        Most found in swamps and marshes, partly or entirely submerged
      - Lillales: As a large group with many highly derived families; it was basically defines as the "petaloid" monocots- those with large, colorful flowers.
      - Asparagales: This is a large clade with many families, species, and types of biology. By examining this clade, we get a sense of evolution as diversification
      - Dioscoreales: Has only one family, Dioscoreaceae, and is mentioned because it has a familiar, important food crop and unusal morphology
      - Commelinoid monocots: Four orders of monocots are known as the commelinoid monocots because they differ from the others in several unusual synapomorphies: They have unique types of epicuticular wax. Walls have unusual types of hemicelluloses and ultraviolet-fluorescent compounds
        
        Arecales: Contain familiar plants, the palms, in family Arecaceae. Leaves of palms always occur only near the shoot apex, never distributed along the length of the stem
        
        Poales: This order contains the grass family Poaceae as well as several other familiar groups such as cattails, bromeliads, and sedges
        
        Zingiberales: This order contains some of the most familiar of all house plants; Maranta, Calathea, canna lilies, and gingers, as well as some that are best known in the warmer southern states- banana and bird-of-paradise.
    - - Basal Eudicots: Several hamamelid families are now believed to be basal eudicots rather than basal angiosperms
        
        Caryophyllales: DNA- based studies have combined a large number of families into a group
        
        Betalains: Whereas other flowering plants have anthocyanin pigments in their flowers, almost all Caryophyllales instead produce a group of water-soluble pigments called betalains
        
        Perisperm: Another unifying character of Caryophyllales is that endosperm develops only a little and then fails to continue growing. Instead, nucellus cells proliferate and form a nutritive tissue called perisperm
        
        Santalales: Small order of highly modified plants, most of which are parasitic.
      - Rosid Clade: Consists of many families that, taken as a whole, are so diverse with respect to vegetative body, flowers, chemistry, and ecology that it is difficult to see they are all related
      - Asterid Clade: Most derived large clade of eudicots, which contains plants such as sunflower, periwinkle, petunia, and morning glory.
- - - - Sporophyte phase/ Sporophyte generation: Trees, shrubs. and herbs are just one phase of plant life
        Sporophytes are always diploid
        
        Syngamy/ Fertilization: Process in which Gametes can fuse with other gametes which produce diploid zygote
      - Gametophyte: Plant spores are just the opposite: they cannot undergo syngamy, but each undergoes mitosis and grows into an entire new haploid plant called gametophyte
        It is called gametophgyte because it is the plant that produce gametes.
        
        Microgametophytes (Male)
        
        This gamete is formed from microspores
        
        Megagametophytes (Female)
        
        This gamete is formed from megaspores
      - Alternation of Generations: Life cycle with two generations-sporophyte and gametophyte
    - - Pedicel: Flower Stalk
      - Receptacle: The very end of the axis, where the other flower parts are attached
      - Complete Flower: Which have all four types of floral appendages
        
        Sepals: The lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages, they are modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts as they mature
        
        All the sepals together are referred as calyx
        
        Petals: Above the sepals on the receptacle are petals, which together make up the corolla
        
        They are also leaf-like, being broad, flat and thin, but they differ from leaves in that they contain pigments other than chlorophyll, have fewer or no fibers, and tend to be thinner and more delicately constructed
        
        Stamens: Above the petals are stamens, known collectively as the androecium. They are frequently referred as the "male part" of the flower because they produce pollen.
        
        Filament: Its stalk
        
        Anther: WShere pollen is actually produced, as part of the sporophyte, the anther is composed of diploid cells, and in each anther, four long columns of tissue become distinct as somme cells enlarge and prepare for meiosis
        
        Tapetum: Layer of Neighboring anther cells, acts as nurse cells, contributing to microspore development and maturation
        
        Pollen: An especially resistant wall which is microspores initially that remain together in a tetrad, but separate, expand to a characteristics shape
        
        carpels
    - - Microgametophytes: Microspores develop into microgametophytes, in all angiosperm each microgametophyte is very small and simple, consisting of at most three cells located within the original pollen cell wall
        
        Vegetative Cell: This one is large
        
        Generative Cell: This one is small lens-shaped
      - Megagametophytes: Within the ovule the surviving megaspore develops into a megagametophyte; technical term for megagametophyte is embryo sac
        
        Seven cells are one large Central Cell with two Polar nuclei
        
        Three small antipodal cells with an egg apparatus consisting of two synergids and an egg
    - - Plasmogamy: Involvement of both syngamy of sperm and egg; fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes
      - Karyogamy: Fusion of the nuclei
      - Double fertilization: The process in which both sperm nuclei undergo fusions - one with the egg nucleus and the other with the polar nuclei
    - - Exocarp: Outer layer- the skin or peel
      - Mesocarp: Middle layer
      - Endocarp: Innermost layer, maybe tough like stones or pit of a cherry or it may be thin
      - Pericarp: The entire fruit wall, whether composed of one or two, or all three layers
    - - Style: That elevates the stigma to a useful position
      - An Ovary: Where Megaspores are produced
      - Stigma: Which catches pollen grains
  - - - Imperfect Flower: If flowers lack either or both essential organs are incomplete as well as imperfect flowers
      - Perfect Flower: If a flower has both essential organs but lacks sepals or petals or both are still perfect flower
      - Sepals and Petals: Considered as non essential organs
      - Dioecy (Dioeceous): A species may have individuals that produce only staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
      - Monoecy (Monoecious): The condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - Coevolution: A flower becoming adapted for visitation by a particular insect and the insect for efficient exploitation of the flower
      - Actinomorphic/ Regular: Most flower which are radially symmetrical ; that is , any longitudinal cut through the middle produces two halves that are mirror images of each other
      - Zygomarphic: All insects, birds, and insects are bilaterally symmetrical - only the longitudinal plane produces two halves that are mirror images so in many species flowers and pollinators have co evolved in such a way that the flowers are now also bilaterally symmetrical
    - - Inferior Ovary or the other parts are epigynous
      - Superior ovary or hypogynous parts which is above the other flower parts
      - Partially buried ovaries are Half-inferior with perigynous flower parts
  - - - Simple fruit: Fruit develops from a single ovary or the fused ovaries of one flower which is common fruit
      - Multiple Fruit: if the separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development, an aggregate fruit results, such as raspberries. If during development all of the individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit called multiple fruit
    - - Dehiscent Fruits: Break open and release the seeds
      - Indehiscent Fruits: They do not break and does not release the seeds, fleshy fruits are indehiscent
- - - - Homozygous
      - Heterozygous
- - - - Long Shoots: Tiny papery leaves occur
      - Short shoots: in the Axils which produce long needle leaves
    - - Simple cones: Pollen cones are simple cones with a single short unbranched axis that beard microsporophylls.
      - Compound Cones: Are more complex than pollen cones each consisting of a shoot with axilary buds .
        
        Axillary bud is microscopic, and its megasporophylls are fused laterally, forming an ovuliferous scale
- - - - Hydroids: The innermost cortex is composed of cells called hydroids which conduct water and dissolved minerals
      - Species that have hydroid s typically also have leptoids, cells that resemble sieve cells
      - At the base of the stem are rhizoids, small, multi-cellular trichome-like structure that penetrate the surface of the substrate
    - - Antheridia: Where sperms are produced in microgametangia
      - Archegonia: Where eggs occur in Megaganetangia
- - - - Thallus: Less Resemblance to mosses, not leafy but rather flat and ribbon like or heart shaped and bilaterally symmetrical
      - Air pores: Cells are loosely arranged as an aerenchyma with large air chambers that open to the exterior by means of air pores
      - Antheridiophore: Male gametophores of Marchantia which produce an umbrella shaped outgrowth
      - Archegoniophores: Also are stalked, but their apex is a set of radiating fingers that project outward and droop downward
- - - - Abiotic Components of the Habitat
        
        Climate (Critically important to all organisms ; has many components -temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and winds)
        
        Soil Factor (Formed by breakdown of rock. First soil that invade a new soil, called pioneers)
        
        Has three layers of horizon
        
        A horizon (Uppermost and sometimes its
        called the zone of leaching ; consists of litter and debris)
        
        B horizon (Zone of deposition because rainwater washes nutrients from A horizon to this layer)
        
        C horizon (Composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments)
        
        Latitude and Altitude (Regions of high altitudes on mountain tops are similar to those high latitude)
        
        Disturbance (Phenomena such as fires, landslides, snow avalanches, and floods)
    - - Biotic Components of Habitat
        
        The Plant Itself (Habitat modification may be beneficial, deter mental, or neutral to the continued success of that species in its own habitat)
        
        Other Plant Species (Possibility for interaction is created; if the interaction is basically beneficial for both organisms, it is described as mutualism, but if it is disadvantageous, it is competition)
        
        Organisms Other Than Plants (Animal, fungi, and prokaryotes are important biotic aspects of a plant's habitat)
        
        Commensal Relationship: In which one species benefits and the other are unaffected
        
        Predation: Relationship in which one species benefits and the other are harmed
- - - - Random Distribution: This is used whenever there is no obvious, identifiable pattern to the position of individuals)
      - Clumped Distribution: Those in which the spacing between plants and is either small or large, but rarely average.
      - Uniform Distribution: Types that occur in orchards and tree plantations; all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbor
- - - - Prezygotic isolation Mechanisms (Biological reproductive barriers prevent pollen from moving from one plant to another and thus neither pollination nor fertilization occurs)
      - Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Hybrid Sterility (Two populations occasionally interbreed or are artificially cross-pollinated and produce viable seed, but the seed grows into a sterile plant)
        
        Hybrid Inviability (If cross-pollination occurs, alleles from one parent may code for proteins incompatible with those coded by alleles from the other, and not even a sterile hybrid can result; instead, the zygote or embryo dies early in development)
- - - - Prezygotic isolation Mechanisms (Biological reproductive barriers prevent pollen from moving from one plant to another and thus neither pollination nor fertilization occurs)
      - Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Hybrid Sterility (Two populations occasionally interbreed or are artificially cross-pollinated and produce viable seed, but the seed grows into a sterile plant)
        
        Hybrid Inviability (If cross-pollination occurs, alleles from one parent may code for proteins incompatible with those coded by alleles from the other, and not even a sterile hybrid can result; instead, the zygote or embryo dies early in development)
- - - - Prophase
      - Metaphase
      - Anaphase
      - Telophase
    - - Meiosis 1
        
        Prophase I
        
        Anaphase I
        
        Metaphase I
        
        Telophase I
      - Meiosis 2
        
        After telophase I, prophase II occur and
        does not subdivided into other stages.
- - - - Vascular Bundle
    - - Located just interior to the cortex