Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Final Mind Map, Growth and Division of the Cell (Cell Division of…

- - - - first stage after cell division
        
        cell begins normal metabolism
        
        synthesis of nucleotides for DNA replication
        
        prepares cell for mitosis
        
        cell matures and differentiate
    - - genes in nucleus are replicated
        
        sequence of nucleotides vary
        
        variety gives way for genome of the organism
        
        types of genes stored as info for
        
        enzymes
        
        hormones
        
        structural proteins
        
        genes begin to become linear
        
        genes attached to one another by linking DNA
        
        chromosomes
        
        Centromere located in center and telomeres at the ends
        
        two identical chromatids after S Phase
        
        becomes twice as large
        
        Eukaryotes
        
        histones used for protection and structure of DNA
        
        DNA replication may occur in more then 1 cycle
        
        nucleus becomes enlarged
        
        endoreduplication
        
        hairs cells
        
        cells requiring rapid, and intense metabolism
        
        glandular cells
        
        cells also rich in ribosomes
        
        large amounts of protein
    - - after S Phase
      - lasts only 3-5 hours
      - tubulins synthesized for spindle microtubules
      - proteins produced
        
        processing chromosomes
        
        break down nuclear envelope
        
        factors for nuclear division
- - - - genes copied 1st
      - set of genes separated 2nd
      - each packed into their own nucleus 3rd
    - - Prophase
        
        chromosomes condense
        
        histones association changed
        
        begin to coil, making them thicker
        
        nucleolus becomes less distinct or disappears
        
        breaks into vesicles
        
        daughter chromosomes made in previous interphase migrate to poles
        
        produce spindle
        
        microtubules
        
        run from pole to a centromere
        
        point of attachment is kinetochore
        
        each centromere has two kinetochore faces
        
        one for each pole
      - Metaphase
        
        spindles pull chromosomes to center
        
        metaphase plate
        
        separaze produced at the end
        
        protein degrading enzyme
        
        eats away cohesin
        
        two chromatids of each chromosome separated
        
        number of chromosomes doubled but size is halved
      - Anaphase
        
        spindles shorten
        
        pull daughter chromosome from its twin towards opposite poles
        
        chromosomes pulled into a compact space
      - Telophase
        
        nuclear envelope fragments attracted to chromosomes
        
        connect and form nuclear envelopes at ends of the cell
        
        chromosomes begin to uncoil
        
        new nucleoli appear
        
        ribosomal genes become active
        
        ribosome subunits produced
        
        spindle dispensary completely
        
        reversal of prophase
    - - division of protoplast
        
        daughter cells receive organelles
        
        random distribution
        
        seperation of cells
      - preprophase band
        
        during prophase
        
        no prophase = no band
        
        microtubules and actin filaments form band around cell
        
        interior of plasma membrane
        
        identifies plane of division
        
        where cell wall will attach to new cell
        
        determines how large cells produced will be
      - Phragmoplast
        
        in plants
        
        microtubules aligned parallel to spindle
        
        actin also present
        
        trap dictyosome vesicles
        
        fuse into flat, plate like vesicles
        
        two primary walls form and middle lamella
        
        forms in center
        
        grows outward toward original wall
        
        cell plate
        
        phragmoplast, vesicle, and walls
        
        meets mother cells plasma membrane
        
        two fuse
        
        vesicle membrane becomes part of plasma membrane of daughter cells
        
        cell walls also go through this
    - - daughter nuclei are replicates of original
      - 2 gametes fuse (haploid cells)
        
        create zygote (diploid cell)
        
        becomes an adult
        
        each contain one set of chromosomes
      - Reduction Division
        
        two rounds of division
        
        Meiosis I & II
        
        prevents S Phase from occurring after first
      - occurs in only production of reproductive cells
        
        gametes
        
        spores
        
        stamens and ovaries
      - Meiosis I
        
        Prophase I
        
        all events of prophase in mitosis
        
        Special interactions of chromosomes
        
        divides Prophase I into 5 stages
        
        Leptotene
        
        chromosomes condense
        
        Zygotene
        
        pairing of chromosomes
        
        homologous chromosomes
        
        Pachytene
        
        shorter and thicker chromosomes
        
        crossing over occurs
        
        Diplotene
        
        homologous chromosomes move away from each other, but dont separate
        
        held together by chiasmata
        
        1 more item...
        
        Diakinesis
        
        homologs seperate
        
        chiasmata pushed to ends of chromosome
        
        become untangled and pair at centromeres
        
        Metaphase I
        
        Spindles move tetrads to center of cell
        
        Metaphase plate formed
        
        Anaphase I
        
        homologous chromosomes separate
        
        cohesin not digested
        
        consist of two chromatids
        
        move to opposite ends
        
        two nuclei formed
        
        both haploid
        
        two sets of genes
        
        Telophase I
        
        Chromosomes uncoil
        
        nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear
        
        sometimes may be skipped
      - Meiosis II
        
        if telophase I occurs the prophase II necessary
        
        nuclei undergo
        
        two chromatids separated
        
        each have haploid set
        
        double cytokinesis
        
        four haploid cells produced
- - - - multinucleate
  - - - algae
      - fungi
      - tissues of seeds
    - - cell wall surrounds each nucleus with cytoplasm
- - - - common in
        
        dinoflagellates
        
        no histones in nucleus
        
        brown algae
        
        euglenoids
        
        some green algae
      - gaps in nuclear envelope
        
        microtubules pass through
  - - - cell division without
        
        plasma membrane pinches in two
        
        forms cleavage furrow
      - Cell division with
        
        similar to plants
        
        phragmoplast formed
        
        dictyosome vesicles establish cell plate
        
        grows outward
        
        fuses with parent cell wall
    - - occurs by different method
        
        spindle depolymerizes quickly
        
        daughter cells close together
        
        microtubules form in the middle
        
        phycoplast
        
        furrowing
        
        cell plate formation
      - nuclear envelope does not break down during mitosis
- - - - plasma membrane pulled inward
        
        cross wall grows inward
        
        splits becoming two walls
        
        two daughter cells released
      - pinches in two
  - - - attached to plasma membrane
      - pulled apart as cell and membrane grow
- - - - function
      - growth
- - - - causes mutations
        
        chemicals
        
        UV light
        
        X rays
        
        Radiation
      - some mutagen repairing enzymes do exist
      - transposable elements
        
        causes of insertions and deletion mutations
        
        pieces of DNA that readily change their positions from one chromosome to another
        
        insertion sequences
        
        cutting insertion sequence out and replacing with DNA
        
        transposon
        
        caries genes that code for proteins not associated with transposition
  - - - deletion
        
        removal
      - insertion
        
        addition
      - inversion
        
        out in backwards
  - - - some may have no effect at all
        
        point mutations
        
        small insertions and deletions
      - some mutations in an exon may cause the gene to code for a protein whose active site is disrupted and can't function
      - statistically most mutations are harmful
  - - - example, leaf primordium cell
        
        leaves aren't involved in sexual reproduction, so mutation is not passed to offspring
  - - - longer genomes have a higher chance have of errors during replication
      - can not be perfectly effective or extremely efficient
- - - - ex.= crossing of different plant colors
        
        after first trait is studied, then more factors can be studied
        
        dihybrid or trihybrid crosses
        
        parents = parental generation
        
        offspring = F1, or first filial generation
        
        interbreeding = F2
        
        genetic symbols
        
        red flower = RR, and white =rr
        
        both homozygous
        
        RR= only R gametes
        
        rr= only r gametes
        
        pink flower of F1= Rr
        
        heterozygous
        
        produces R sperm and r egg or visa versa in equal numbers
        
        incomplete dominace
        
        neither parental trait dominates
      - shape
      - leaf structure
      - photosynthetic efficiency
      - Mendel mainly focused on monohybrid
  - - - or by crossing with another plant of the same genotype
        
        either route results in 50/50 chance of containing R or r allele
        
        not all zygotes are gentically similar
        
        RR
        
        25%
        
        rr
        
        25%
        
        Rr
        
        50%
        
        produces 3 types of F1
        
        Punnett squares used to see proportions of genotypes
        
        basis of modern genetics
        
        1:2:1 ratio discovered by Mendel
  - - - shows over recessive
        
        height example
        
        TT= tall
        
        homozygous dominant
        
        Tt= tall
        
        but has recessive allele for shortness
    - - height
        
        tt= short
    - - cross two heteros (Tt)
        
        1 TT: 2 Tt: 1 tt
        
        75% tall, and 25% short
        
        75% dominant character shown
  - - - cross a unknown genotype plant with a homozygous recessive
        
        results
        
        if TT then = 100% tall
        
        if Tt= 50% short, and 50% tall
        
        can be used to form pure-bred lines
        
        keeping genotypes separated
  - - - protein size =300 amino acids
        
        codon portions of mRNA = 300 codons with each containing 3 nucleotides
        
        gene= 900 nucleotides long
        
        gene may result many forms, or multiple alleles
        
        polymorphic
        
        X1, X2, X3, X4
        
        makes concept of dominance more complex
- - - - 9:3:3:1 ratio is created
  - - - crossing over between the two occurs during prophase 1
      - the further apart the genes are, the higher the chance for crossing over to occur
  - - - two genes become linked
- - - - alleles of parents passed to progeny equally
      - all genes in the nucleus
    - - zygote obtains all plastid and mitochondria genomes from maternal parent
        
        mitochondrion genetics are difficult to understand
        
        plastid genetics are easier to understand
        
        results depends on which plant is pollen and which is ovule plant
        
        also responsible for certain variegation
        
        presence of spots or sectors that are white, red, or orange on a plant that is otherwise green
  - - - genetically inherited mutations always result from recessive and present in homolygous condition
    - - affects basic metabolic functions then results in death very young
      - some gametes even die before fertilization
  - - - even ploidy level means plants can undergo meiosis and are fertile
      - odd means they are sterile like triploids
    - - two chromatids stay joined after second division of meiosis
- - - - allows entry of replicating factors
        
        one strand of the double helix becomes cut
        
        forms replicon bubble
        
        open helix allows free nucleotides to diffuse to regions of single strand
        
        pair with bases along strand
        
        primer RNA
        
        10 sequences long
        
        acts as substrate for DNA -synthesizing enzyme
        
        1 more item...
        
        replication fork
        
        DNA uncoiling
        
        replication forks run into adjacent replicons and all new pieces of DNA are ligated
- - - - 4 or 5 genes effect the same trait
        
        epistasis
        
        quantitative trait loci
        
        genes of other portions of DNA associated with such traits
        
        pleiotropic effects
        
        multiple phenotype effects of one mutation
- - - - all protoplasm of one plant=one continuous mass
  - - - spaces+wall=apoplast
  - - - cells in hydraulic equilibrium with surrounding cells
    - - water follows potassium and causes swelling
      - guard cells open
        
        K+ pumping stops
        
        close when potassium is pumped out of guard cells into surrounding cells
        
        H2O follows
  - - - similar to guard cells
        
        expel or accumulate potassium
        
        causes surrounding cells to adjust their water potential and turgidity
      - midrib of Venus' flytraps are a example
  - - - larger the membrane=larger number of pumps
        
        transfer cells used to increase surface area
        
        can be found in glands, areas that pass nutrients to embryos, and where sugar is loaded to phloem
        
        walls have numerous finger-like and ridge-like outgrowths
- - - - sugars diffused into conducting cells and polymerized into polysaccharides
        
        companion cells used to load
        
        companion + conducting = STM/CC complex
      - sugars cant diffuse back out
    - - massive loading occurs causing great pressure build up
      - sugars/nutrients transported by phloem per hour = mass transfer
      - specific mass transfer = cross section area of phloem
  - - - Two mechanisms used to seal
        
        P-protein
        
        carried by sap creating a tangled mass
        
        forms P-protein plug
        
        Callose
        
        carried along with P-protein
        
        contributes to plug
- - - - interacts strongly with other water molecules
      - cohesive
        
        force acting on one acts on all surrounding
      - molecules interact with other substances
        
        adhesive
        
        except lipids
        
        adheres to soil particles
        
        absorbed by roots
      - heavy molecule so lifting it upwards in tree requires lots of energy
  - - - cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        stomal pores opened allowing water loss through intercellular spaces to the atmosphere
        
        =transstomatal transpiration
        
        water also lost through the cuticle
        
        transcuticular transpiration
        
        these water losses from epidermal and mesophyll cells to have a more negative water potential
        
        brought back to equilibrium via diffusion of water back into cells from the cells deeper inside the leaf
        
        forms a gradient of water potentials that hits a tracheid or vessel element
        
        water cohesive property begins to play a role
        
        water leaves xylem and drags more water with it
        
        pulls water upward from the roots
        
        water adhesion to neighboring cells causes water to remain fixed to walls of tracheids and vessel elements
        
        1 more item...
      - transpiration = loss of water
        
        leaf cells have a more negative water potential drawing water from tracheid
        
        tension pulls on water in xylem
        
        uppermost tracheids more negative then lower
        
        friction and gravity are overcame causing water to move upward
        
        lower most xylem pulls water from root cortex, and cortex draws water from epidermis of root
        
        2 more items...
      - cavitation
        
        hydrogen breaking of water columns
        
        molecules above cavitation are drawn up
        
        molecules below cavitation rush downward
        
        movement of molecules forms an embolism
        
        air bubble in tracheid or vessel element
        
        never able to conduct water again
  - - - stomata open for CO2 absorption and water loss
        
        adequate moisture in soil allows nutrients to be carried up from roots to the shoots and reducing stress on the leaves by cooling them
        
        if soil is dry though it can pose a danger to the plant
        
        dessication of plant can occur
        
        mechanisms for stomatal opening and closings have been formed to prevent this
        
        mechanism keyed into certain environmental factors
- - - - through a membrane= osmosis
      - three types of membranes
        
        freely permeable
        
        completely permeable
        
        differentially or selectively permeable
      - aquaporins
        
        in the membrane and allow H2O molecules to diffuse faster
      - membranes also have molecular pumps that use ATP to move molecules across membrane
        
        =active transport
        
        proton pumping in respiration and photosynthesis
      - all membranes are crucial in governing the flow of materials
      - intracellular transport
        
        ER membrane and dictyosome membrane
        
        active or osmosis
        
        ER forms vesicles
        
        they migrate through cytoplasm to fuse with other organelles
- - - - can be increased in several ways
        
        heated
        
        pressure
        
        elevated
      - can be decreased in several ways
        
        cooling it
        
        reducing pressure
        
        lowering it
      - adhesion
        
        water molecules form hydrogen bonds to a substance
        
        not as free for diffusion
        
        capacity to do work has decreased
      - three components
        
        pressure potential
        
        effect of pressure
        
        measured in MPa
        
        osmotic potential
        
        effect of solutes on H2O
        
        always negative
        
        pure H2O= 0.0 MPa
        
        related to number of particles in a solution
        
        matric potential
        
        water's adhesion to nondisolved structures
        
        adhesion only decreases water's free energy
        
        always negative
  - - - occurs when the cell and the solution have the same water potential
      - movement of water molecules still occurs
      - no shrinkage or nor swelling
    - - solutes in protoplasm become more dilute
        
        causes osmotic and pressure potential to become more negative
        
        water potential becomes more negative in turn as well
        
        allows for equilibrium to be reached
    - - causes water to move into cell to dilute solutes
        
        osmotic becomes less negative
        
        swelling of protoplast
        
        causes increase of pressure potential
      - lysis of some animal cells can occur if placed in pure water
        
        not plant cells however
        
        cells only increase in size
- - - - portions of a plant separate from middle portion and start to function as individuals
    - - many individuals could be connected to one single individual
- - - - sex organs produce haploid cells
        
        either eggs or sperm via meiosis
        
        come together to form zygote, which becomes a diploid individual
        
        gametes fusing with other gametes= syngamy/fertilization
      - sporophyte generation/phase
        
        trees, shrubs, and herbs
        
        sporophytes are always diploid with organs capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        spores formed via meiosis which are haploid
        
        spores do not undergo syngamy
        
        they undergo mitosis and grow into a entire new haploid plant called gametophyte
        
        form gametes via mitosis and they then undergo syngamy to form new zygote that becomes a new diploid sporophyte
        
        gameteophytes formed from spores
        
        two types spores= heterospory
        
        male: microgametophytes formed from microspores
        
        female: megagametophytes formed from megaspoores
      - two generations-sporophyte and gametophyte- is a alternation of generations
    - - flower stalk= pedicel
        
        very end of axis where flower parts attached is the receptacle
      - four types of floral appendages
        
        sepals
        
        modified leaves that surround and enclose flower and protect flower part during development
        
        petals
        
        make up corolla. petals+sepals= perianth. petals are a leaf like structure with pigments other then chlorophyll. important in attracting pollinators
        
        stamens
        
        known as androecium, and produce the pollen. have two parts, the filament (stalk) and anther (where pollen is produced)
        
        carpels
        
        constitute the gynoecium. has three main parts: 1. stigma that catches pollen 2. style that elevates the stigma to a useful position 3. an ovary where megaspores are produced. the ovary contains placentae that have regions of ovules. Ovule has a central mass of parenchyma called nucellus which is surrounded by two sheets of integuments with a small hole, the micropyle. each ovule develops four megaspores via meiosis, but three are reabsorbed
        
        a plant with all four= a complete plant
        
        incomplete plant lacks 1 or 2 of the appendages
    - - microgametophyte
        
        developed from microspores
        
        microspore nucleus divides mitotically to produce a vegetative cell and a small lens shaped generative cell which divides into two sperm cells (microgametes). this constitutes the gametophyte
        
        gains nutrients from sporophyte
      - megagametophyte
        
        surviving megaspore within ovule develops into the megagametophyte
        
        nucleus undergoes 3 mitotic divisions to form embryo sac
        
        gains nutrients from sporophyte
  - - - forms diploid zygote
        
        inherits mitochondria and a nucleus from egg, and a nucleus and plastids from sperm
  - - - cells at one end of suspensor divide mitotically and form embryo
      - cells at other end initiates two primordia that grow into two cotyledons
        
        give embryo a heart shape forming heart stage
        
        number of cotyledons have depends on type of species
        
        used to store nutrients
        
        torpedo stage is where embryo elongates into a cylinder
        
        short axis is established consisting of radicle, epiicotyl, and hypocotyl
        
        vascular tissue differentiates in embryo
        
        seed with lots of endosperm= albuminous seed
        
        endosperm sparse= exalbuminous seed
  - - - three distinct layers formed
        
        exocarp- skin or peel
        
        mesocarp- flesh
        
        endocarp- tough like stones or a pit
        
        entire fruit wall= pericarp
- - - - pollination of a carpel by pollen of a different individual
      - allows genetic diversity among plants
    - - no genetic diversity because it is like asexual reproduction
    - - self fertilization prevented if anthers and stigma mature at different times
        
        pollen from anthers released while style is still immature
        
        exposed pollen only lives briefly due to damage to DNA or desiccation
        
        stigma and style mature but there is no living pollen left
    - - self pollination inhibited via compatibility barriers
        
        barriers are chemical reactions that prevent pollen growth between pollen and carpels
        
        certain proteins from genes used in blocking pollination
    - - incomplete flowers either lack sepals and petals, or they lack stamens and carpels
        
        essential organs, and if either is absent then it can affect sexual reproduction
        
        flowers lacking either or both essential organs= imperfect flower
        
        flower has both= perfect flower
        
        sepals and petals= nonessential organs
      - Dioecious
        
        plants species that produce individuals with staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
        
        life cycle consists of four types of plants: 1. microgametophytes 2. megagametophytes 3. staminate sporophytes 4. carpellate sprophytes
        
        adaptation that ensure cross pollination due to plant only producing one kind of spore
        
        separate genders
      - Monoecious
        
        condition of having staminate flowers on the same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - pigments, fragrances, and sugar rich secretions used or atrraction
        
        use of an animal to to transfer pollen from flower to flower increases chances of pollen reaching stigma
        
        coevolution occurs as plants evolves to attract insects and insects evolving for efficient exploitation of the flower
    - - attracting pollinators is unnecessary
        
        sepals are reduced or absent, and ovaries need no special protection so flowers may be tiny
        
        huge amounts of pollen are released to increase the chances of reaching a stigma
        
        lots of small flowers to increase stigma surface area
    - - must be well protected from pollinators
- - - - two basic arrangements
        
        determinate
        
        inderterminate
- - - - dry is fruit not typically eaten by natural seed distributing animals
        
        dehiscent fruits break open and release seeds
      - fleshy fruits are those that are eaten during the natural seed distribution process
        
        indehiscent fruits do not open and release seeds
    - - fruit that are indehiscent
      - fruit and seed fused into one single structure
    - - carried by water means they must be heavier, larger, and buoyant, resist rot and mildew
        
        fruits carried by animals use hooks or stickers, or or be sticky and glue themselves to animals
- - - - predators feeding rate
        
        how quickly a predator can find a new prey
        
        faster rate if more prey is available
      - handling time
        
        time needed to consume the prey
      - two combined represent the predators' functional response
        
        dependent on prey density= prey dependent
    - - =net rate of change in prey numbers
      - dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        dN/dt is rate of change with time of the prey population
        
        r is the intrinsic rate of increase for prey
        
        N is the number of prey species in the community
        
        a is the predator's per capita attack rate
        
        units= number of prey eaten per prey per predator
        
        prey dependent
        
        P is the number of individuals present
      - net rate of change of predator numbers is dP/dt=faNP-qP
        
        dP/dt is rate of change over time for predators
        
        f is a constant representing predators' efficiency at converting prey eaten into new predators
        
        q is the predators' per capita mortality rate
      - population of prey will be stable, neither increasing or decreasing
        
        dN/dt=0
        
        rN-aNP=0
        
        rN=aNP
        
        r=aP
        
        r/a=P
        
        population of prey is stable when density of the predator equals r/a
        
        predators population stable when dP/dt=0
    - - =paradox enrichment
    - - fixed effort harvesting is the population health determined by the amount that can be harvested with effort
        
        fixed quota harvesting is individuals being allowed to harvest a particular amount
  - - - 3 factors determine a predators choice of prey
        
        probability that a particular prey individual will be encountered
        
        decision for predator to attack the prey once encountered
        
        probability that an attacked prey item is successfully eaten
        
        optimal foraging theory examine interactions between these factors
        
        produced an optimal diet model with four predictions
        
        predators should prefer the prey with highest energy yield
        
        predator broadening its diet to include lower energy yielding prey
        
        some prey items will always be consumed, and others will never be eaten
        
        probability of being eaten depends partially on the abundance of other plants that are easy to handle and have a higher energy yield
        
        animals are a more valuable prey so omnivores will tend to go for the animal prey ignoring plants completely
    - - several species often compete for the same resources
        
        light
        
        water
        
        minerals
        
        exploitation competition is when organisms consume the same resource and make it less available
        
        interference competition is when one organism restricts another organisms resource access even though the first may not be using it
      - two competing species can coexist if each species has a greater negative effect on its own per capita growth rate then the per capita growth rate of the competitor
        
        may also coexist if one or the other can increase from low density even in the presence of the other
        
        this species may become invasive
    - - a increase in one plant species associated with a decrease in another
        
        appear to be in competition, but are not competing against one another
- - - - relationships are not free
      - flowers either produce nectar or losing pollen that is eating
      - plants must supply carbs to fungi or bacteria
      - cheating develops as organisms try to obtain benefits without paying costs
  - - - =spiny desert shrubs
    - - organisms become established on newly created substrates
        
        substrates= volcanic ash and glaciers freeing soil of all organisms
        
        pioneer species move in
        
        able to handle harsh conditions
        
        mutualistic relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria
- - - - very difficult to map
      - difficult to trust due to being incomplete
      - keystone species used to see affect on the structure of the community in its absence or presence
- - - - usually incomplete
      - not all organisms are cataloged
    - - diversity of growth forms
      - feeding methods of herbivores
      - diversity of primary producers, secondary, and decomposers
  - - - larger = more diverse
        
        larger population, so less likely to die out if a disturbance occurs
      - smaller = less diverse
      - relation between species and are richness is species-area relationship
        
        alpha diversity = number of species or growth forms at a local, or small site
        
        beta diversity= compares difference between several smaller sites within a larger region
        
        gamma diversity= number of species within a area
      - no community will have equal numbers of individuals of every species
        
        species abundance distribution used
  - - - many proposed theories on why this occurs
        
        regions near the equator have more benign environments, where as higher latitudes have more severe conditions
        
        fewer organisms capable of adapting to these conditions
        
        geographical and geological play a role as well
        
        high latitudes= no ice-free land
        
        recently discovered evidence of Earth's climate history indicates that temperate conditions are recent
        
        earth used to have a much warmer, tropical climate
        
        certain areas went from tropical to temperate
        
        organisms have had millions of years to adapt to tropical conditions, but not as long to adapt to temperate
- - - - environment composed of many discrete patches in which a species can live
      - some patches are occupied by the species whereas others are not
      - empty patches become populated via migration
      - populations within individual patches can go extinct in that patch
    - - low quality habitats= sink habitats
- - - - alternation of heteromorphic generations
        
        sporophyte
        
        in flowering plants they are large with leaf and roots
        
        in nonvascular they are smaller, more temporary and very inconspicuous
        
        absorb minerals from gametophytes and remain attached to them
        
        never independent of of the gametophyte, never branch, and never have leaves
        
        visible if you examine moss closely, and look like brown or green hairs
        
        gametophyte
        
        tiny and occur inside pollen grains and ovules
        
        however they are the larger more prominent generation in nonvascular
        
        green moss
      - wont grow to be very large, but being small provides certain advantages
        
        selective advantage in habitats
- - - - treated as three distinct divisions
        
        mosses= Bryophyta
        
        liverworts= Hepatophyta
        
        hornworts= Anthocerotophyta
- - - - leafy stems = gametophores which grow closely together, tightly appressed, and form dense mounds
        
        cool wet environments produces plants more open and loose
        
        all moss stems have leaves
        
        did not evolve from same structures as vascular plants stems and leaves did
        
        gametophores grow from an apical meristem that contains a apical cell
        
        tissues and leaves in precise arrangements
        
        cuticle occurs only on top part of most moss leaves making the underside capable of absorbing water directly
        
        lack of cuticle= no protection against desiccation
        
        no stomata on moss leaves
        
        moss stems are always slender and have little tissue differentiation
        
        surface not to different from underlying so no epidermis
        
        stem tissues all called cortex, may be uniform in all parts
        
        outer cells more narrow with thickened walls
        
        inner cells are larger and more parenchymatous and chlorophyllous
    - - in some mosses, primarily the family Polytrichaceae, the inner most cortex has cells composed of hydroids
        
        conduct water and dissolved minerals
        
        elongated cells that lose cytoplasm when mature and end walls are partially digested away
        
        aligned with those above and below
        
        species with hydroids usually have leptoids then
        
        resemble sieve cells
        
        no nuclei, prominent gap junctions between cells, elongated and retain nuclei
      - majority of mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
        
        water conducted along the exterior of stems via capillary action
        
        leaves and stems so small they form spaces narrow enough to act as capillary channels
        
        no leptoids means water transported between parenchyma cells
        
        at the base of the stem is rhizoids
        
        small, multicellular thrichome like structures
        
        anchor stems by penetrating substrate
    - - gametophore growth begins when a spore germinates and sends out long slender, chlorophyllous cell
        
        cell undergoes mitosis and produces a branched system= protonema
    - - gametophore produces gametangia
        
        all mosses are oogamous= every species has small bifilagellate sperm cells and large nonmotile egg cells
        
        sperm produced in microgametangia called antheridia
        
        eggs occur in megagametangia called archegonia
        
        both occur on same gametophore in bisexual species
        
        other species have male and female gametophores
        
        special mechanisms used to get sperm to the egg
  - - - zygote undergoes a transverse division and develops into a small bulbous tissue called the foot
        
        foot of gametophore used to absorb sugars, minerals, and water
        
        cells of foot are transfer cells in m any species
        
        upper cells grow by cell division and become simple apical sporangium= capsule
        
        between the foot and the stalk is the seta
      - sporophyte is structurally simple
        
        true epidermis with stomata
        
        apex of sporangium is a cap like lid called operculum
        
        breakage of cell from operculum separating from sporangium= peristome teeth
        
        teeth trap spores when humid, and opening to release when air is dry
        
        sporangium covered by calyptra
  - - - many species grow in permanently moist environments
      - some mosses tolerant of desiccation and drying out does not damage them
        
        as long as 30% of their weight is water, then they remain dormant but alive
      - dessicated mosses resistant to high or low temps and UV light
      - grow on hard or impervious surfaces
      - important in later establishment of other species
- - - - others form small, solid, ribbon like gametophytes with a less conspicuous sporophyte then mosses
  - - - leafy liverworts
        
        gametophore resembles that of moss, slender stem with leaves
        
        leaves differ from moss though however
      - thallose liverworts
        
        show less resemblance to mosses
        
        not leafy at all but rather flat and ribbon like or heart shaped and bilaterally symmetrical
        
        body referred as a thallus which has no roots, stems, or leaves
        
        much thicker then leafy
        
        many cells contain oil droplets next to substrate and those on the side away from substrate have more chlorophyll
        
        cells arranged in a aerenchyma with large air chambers that open to exterior via large air pores
        
        not stomata
      - in both the gametophyte generation initiated when spores germinate and establish a protonematal phase
      - both may either be bisexual, or unisexual
  - - - differ in fundamental structure though
        
        liverwort lack a columella
        
        dehiscence occurs via 4 longitudinal slits, not by an operculum
        
        no peristome teeth
        
        cells in sporangium do not undergo meiosis, rather they differentiate into elaters
- - - - chloroplasts have a pyrenoid
  - - - gametophyte is parenchymous and does not tolerate drying
      - internally gametophytes have numerous chambers
        
        chambers start off as mucilage chambers, but become invaded by bacteria to form a symbiotic relationship
      - special mucilage chamber used to develop antheridia
        
        archegonia formed via superficial cells
  - - - hornworts have a foot embedded in gametophore tissue, but no seta or discrete sporangium
      - sporangium is a long, horn like cylinder
      - some species have stomata
      - spores are green, yellow, brown, or black
        
        have a columella as in mosses, and have elaters like liverworts, however these are multicellular unlike liverworts
- - - - contained all parts (sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels) and arranged spirally
- - - - all angiosperms classified as either monocot or eudicot
        
        monocots have 1 cotyledon on their embryo
        
        leaves also have parallel veins, vascular bundles throughout the stem, and never have ordinary secondary growth and wood
        
        flowers arranged into multiples of three: 3 petals, 3 sepals, 3 stamen, and 3 carpels
        
        eudicots are more diverse and have 2 cotyledon on the embryo
        
        reticulated venation in leaves
        
        vascular bundles in only one ring in the stem
        
        can be woody, herbaceous, or succulent
        
        flower parts are in sets of 5
        
        early angiosperms divided into basal angiosperm clades first
        
        DNA sequences showed that they had become reproductively separate from the angiosperms
- - - - the Nymphaeaceae= water lilies
      - Austrobaileyales have woody trees with bisexual flowers, with stamens and carpels similar to Amborella
      - DNA evidence-morphologically, shows magnoliid diverged from earlier angiosperms
        
        does not differ from the other two clades
        
        wood similar to to that of gymnosperms, which lacks vessels, fibers, and axial parenchyma
        
        pollen have single germination pore= they are uniaperature as are all basal angiosperms and monocots
- - - - perianth composed of three inner membranes and perianth members= tepals
        
        water lilies have similar features
        
        Nymphaeales gave rise to lilies and monocots
        
        ancestors had broad leaves and lived as aquatic plants
        
        leaves have since evolved to be adapted to land
  - - - have air chambers for buoyancy
    - - tend to be thin and delicate then with loss of tissues or that have become simplified
    - - some species have inflorescence: tiny flowers
  - - - spots or lines on the petals and ordinary nectaries formed at bases of tepals or stamens
  - - - carpels fuse side by side and the sides= septa
      - open areas= septal nectaries
    - - small delicate bulbs to vining epiphytes
      - very diverse in biochemistry as well
        
        groups having distinct chemical compounds
  - - - major source of carbs
  - - - Arecales
        
        Palms
        
        leaves always occur near shoot apex
        
        trunks are prostate
        
        flowers very tiny
        
        scattered vascular bundles
        
        coconuts and dates
      - Poales
        
        Poaceae, cattails, bromeliads, and sedges
        
        Poaceae= wheat, oats, rye, corn, rice, and sugar cane
        
        wind pollinated so sepals and petals are of little importance and reduced to bristle-like structures
      - Zingiberales
        
        most familiar house plants: canna lilies, gingers, banana =, and bird of paradise
        
        large showy flowers pollinated by insects, birds, or bats
- - - - flower parts arranged in whorls and stamens have a well defined filament/stalk and anther
  - - - flowers have few fusion of parts
        
        numerous free parts
      - buttercups, windflower, and clematis
        
        also poppy family
        
        =herbs or shrubs with a very soft wood
        
        several hamamelid families are also eudicot
    - - DNA based studies put certain families into the group Caryophyllales
        
        cacti, iceplant, portulaca, spinach, beets, and Russian thistle
        
        flowering plants have anthyocyanin pigments in their leaves, but Caryophyllales have betalain pigments
        
        endosperm develops only a little, and nucleus cells develop nutritive tissue called the perisperm that surrounds the embryo
        
        the nature of sieve tube plastids contains deposits of fibrous proteins located as rings just interior to plastid membrane
        
        most members are herbaceous with either no wood, or very little wood
    - - most are parasitic
        
        Santalum tree used as sandalwood incense, uses its roots to parasitize nearby roots
        
        Mistletoes are also parasitic
  - - - DNA analysis also adds a great deal of info on the relationships
      - rosids contain several small orders and two large groups
        
        Vitis= genus of grapes that gives juices and raisins and Vitis vinifera= wine grape
        
        another small order is the Geraniales
        
        two large groups are the fabids and the malvids
        
        also contains Rosales, Sapindales, Fabales, and Mrytrales
      - important character of rosids is pinnately compound leaves
  - - - distinguished on the basis of 1. have sympetalous flowers 2. just a few stamen 3. stamens alternate with petals
      - exploit very specialized pollinators with complex floral patterns
      - many chemical differences from other clades
        
        iridoid compounds found only in this group
        
        certain families make poisons or deterrent chemicals
      - grouped into two orders
        
        lamiids
        
        campanulids
      - many asterids are important medically
        
        Apocynaceae contains periwinkle which vinblastine and vincrstine are extracted from
        
        anticancer drugs
- - - - higher respiration rate
      - between 5 and 25 degrees celcius
      - adequate O2 diffusion
    - - slows rate down
      - below 5 degrees C
      - above 40 degrees C
      - not enough O2 in tissues
  - - - atmosphere has high concentration
        
        demand lowered
    - - roots
        
        rain
        
        hypoxia
        
        less O2
        
        anoxia
        
        no O2
        
        Rice
        
        can grow without
        
        death
        
        to much rain
        
        causes soil air disruption
        
        Flooding
        
        to much rain causes death
        
        damages roots
        
        anaerobic respiration
        
        survival for short period
      - Special cases
        
        Tubers & Bulky Roots
        
        potatoes (tubers)
        
        aerobic or anaerobic
        
        not well established
        
        Carrots (root)
        
        Beets (root)
        
        Sapwood & Cambium Trees
        
        hypoxic
        
        long diffusion path
        
        no intercellular spaces
        
        fruits & seeds
        
        embryos
        
        anaerobic respiration
  - - - High respiration rate
        
        active metabolism
        
        glands
        
        fruit maturation
      - Low respiration rate
        
        meristematic cells
        
        seeds
        
        respiratory inhibitors
        
        dormant
        
        no respiration
        
        mesophyll
        
        collenchyma
- - - - 2 ATP
      - 2 NADH
        
        2-3 more ATP
        
        mitochondria
    - - NADH
      - 2 pyruvates
        
        6 ATP
    - - 6 NADH
      - 2 FADH2
      - original glucose molecule
        
        2 ATP
      - 24 ATP
  - - - drawn off
        
        Anabolic metabolism
        
        2 NADPH
      - not drawn off
        
        continue to cycle
        
        Carbon oxidized to carbon oxide
        
        6 NADPH
      - NADPH
        
        cellular reduction
        
        nitrate to aminos
        
        sulfates to sulfhydryls
        
        carbohydrates to fats
        
        not consumed
        
        protons to ETC
        
        2 ATP
- - - - higher proof
        
        distilled
        
        heat
        
        raises alcohol concentration
        
        removes water
        
        addition of alcohol
      - types
        
        beer
        
        fermentation of starchy cereal grains
        
        barley
        
        most common
        
        wheat
        
        corn
        
        rice
        
        Sake
        
        technically a beer
        
        1 more item...
        
        fungus
        
        2 more items...
        
        steamed cooked
        
        fermented a month
        
        yeast
        
        2 more items...
        
        alcohol addition
        
        2 more items...
        
        hops
        
        Humulus lupulus
        
        reduces sweetness
        
        add bitter tatse
        
        lagers & pilsners
        
        Saccharomyces cerevisiae
        
        bottom fermentation
        
        cool temperatures
        
        most beers in US
        
        3% to 6%
        
        pale lagers
        
        crisp taste
        
        ales
        
        Saccharomyces cerevisiae
        
        top fermentation
        
        warm temperatures
        
        esters
        
        light
        
        fruit like
        
        types
        
        brown
        
        pale
        
        porter
        
        light beers
        
        fewer calories
        
        less carbohydrates in mash
        
        starch to sugars
        
        higher alcohol concentration
        
        2 more items...
        
        wine
        
        fermented fruit juices
        
        grapes
        
        Vitis vinifera
        
        varieties of wine
        
        5 more items...
        
        elderberries
        
        peaches
        
        strawberries
        
        yeast added
        
        S. cerevisiae
        
        lots of sugars
        
        6000 BCE
        
        no oxygen
        
        O2 presence turns to vinegar
        
        aging
        
        oak barrels
        
        alter flavor
        
        alter aroma
        
        months or years
        
        spirits
        
        above 20%
        
        kills yeast
        
        added alcohol
        
        distillation
        
        boil
        
        ethanol evaporated
        
        1 more item...
        
        water left behind
        
        raises to only 95.6%
        
        191 proof
        
        types
        
        whiskeys
        
        2 more items...
        
        vodka
        
        2 more items...
        
        gin
        
        2 more items...
        
        Brandy
        
        1 more item...
        
        rum
        
        1 more item...
        
        tequila
        
        1 more item...
      - risks
        
        reduced focus
        
        DUI
        
        car wrecks
        
        death
        
        alcoholism
        
        liver damage
    - - starches
        
        glucosw
      - yeast
        
        dies at 18% concentration
      - sugars
- - - - Power metabolic processes
    - - Reducing Agent
      - High energy level
        
        oxidized to form ATP
      - Carries electrons to ETC
  - - - Requires oxygen
        
        Glycolysis
        
        Embden-Meyerhoff to pyruvate
        
        ATP
        
        NADH
        
        O2 present allows oxidation
        
        NAD+ allows continuation
        
        occurs in cytosol and plastids
        
        Citric Acid Cycle/ Kreb's
        
        Pyruvate
        
        broken down to ATP
        
        produces
        
        NADH
        
        FADH2
        
        Used to synthesize ATP
        
        ETC
        
        Mitochondrial inner membrane
        
        Produces
        
        ATP
        
        NADH & FADH2 reduced
        
        H2O
        
        Oxygen picks up protons
    - - Glucose broken down
        
        Glycolysis/ Embden-Meyerhoff
        
        produces
        
        2 ATP
        
        4 made
        
        2 consumed
        
        used in
        
        protein synthesis
        
        nucleic acid replication
        
        microtubule assembly
        
        ion transfer
        
        NADH
        
        reducing power
        
        nitrates and sulfates
        
        fatty acids
        
        pyruvate
        
        electron acceptor
        
        lactic acid
        
        plants and fungi
        
        1 more item...
    - - Citric and electron transport
        
        energy lost
        
        heat produced
        
        increased entropy
        
        examples
        
        compost piles
        
        breathing
        
        shivering
        
        Skunk cabbage
        
        Symplocarpus foetidus
        
        melts ice by producing heat
      - Thermogenic Respiratioin
    - - phosphorylated five carbon sugars
        
        pentose
      - Importance
        
        Synthetic pathway
        
        erythrose
        
        four-carbon sugar
        
        starting material
        
        lignin and anthocyanin pigments
        
        linin
        
        deposited by tissues
        
        3 more items...
        
        delivered to secondary wall
        
        anthocyanin
        
        flower petals
        
        bright colored fruits
        
        ribose
        
        five-carbon sugar
        
        nucleic acid metabolism
        
        RNA
        
        DNA
        
        Synthesis
        
        amino acids
        
        tyrosine
        
        phenylalanine
        
        tryptophan
    - - lipid storage
        
        found in
        
        tissues
        
        oily seeds
        
        apical meristems
        
        triglyceride or phospholipids
        
        B-oxidation
        
        acetyl CoA
        
        synthesis of carbohydrates
        
        citric acid cycle
        
        FADH2
        
        NADH
  - - - picked up by non respiratory enzyme
        
        forms
        
        fats
        
        nucleic acids
        
        amino acids
        
        ligin
- - - - parenchyma
        
        only primary walls that remain thin
        
        allows for diffusion of gases and materials
        
        Parenchyma tissue
        
        most common tissue composed of most common cell
        
        all soft parts of the plant
        
        soft leaves, petals, fruits, and seeds are entirely parenchyma
        
        active metabolically
        
        alive after maturation
        
        chlorenchyma cells = parenchyma cells
        
        involved in photosynthesis
        
        many chloroplasts
        
        also other pigmented cells = parenchyma
        
        glandular cells
        
        secretion of nectar, fragrances, resins, and oils
        
        not many chloroplasts, but numerous ER and dictyosomes
        
        transfer cells
        
        increase surface area of plasma membrane of cell wall
        
        transport material
        
        some die at maturity
        
        begins cell function
        
        pea pods and stamens
      - collenchyma
        
        thin walls in some areas, thick in other areas
        
        plasticity, or ability to be deformed by high pressure and retains shape
        
        location
        
        underneath epidermis
        
        bands near vascular bundles
        
        allows resistance to breaking
        
        require large amounts of glucose to make
        
        work with parenchyma to support
        
        work together like air pressure and a tire
        
        parenchyma on the inside
        
        useless unless confined by something
        
        collenchyma on outside
        
        strong and thick, yet no good without air pressure
      - sclerenchyma
        
        primary wall and a thick secondary that is lignified
        
        walls are elastic
        
        maintains leaf's shape
        
        supports the plant by its strength alone
        
        rigidity makes unusable in growth of shoot tips
        
        develop from parenchyma cells in mature organs
        
        Two types
        
        conducting
        
        Tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        transports water and type of vascular cells
        
        mechanical
        
        subdivided
        
        long fibers
        
        long and flexible
        
        found in areas where strength and flexibility are needed
        
        1 more item...
        
        short sclereids
        
        less isodiametric (cuboidal)
        
        strong walls in all 3 dimensions
        
        2 more items...
- - - - elongated helps a plant explore
        
        stolons
        
        advanced exploration
      - allows shoots to grow in sunnier spots
    - - axillary bud within
        
        miniature shoot
        
        has apical meristem
        
        grows into branch or flowers
    - - small, corky, waxy
      - protect delicate organs inside
  - - - important for not shading other leaves
      - alternate
        
        leaves one per node
      - opposite
        
        leaves two per node
      - decussate
        
        leaves located in four rows
      - whorled
        
        three or more leaves per node
      - spiral
        
        leaves not aligned with their nearest neighbors
      - distichous
        
        leaves located in two rows only
  - - - allows starch accumulation
      - bulbs
        
        short shoots, with thick, fleshy leaves
        
        onions, daffodils, garlic
      - corms
        
        vertical, thick stems with thin, papery leaves
        
        crocus and gladiolus
      - Rhizomes
        
        fleshy horizontal stems that allow a plant to spread underground
        
        bamboo
      - Tubers
        
        horizontal, but grow for only a short time
        
        mainly a means of storage
        
        potatoes
      - subterranean locations
- - - - protection against invasion
        
        fungi
        
        bacteria
        
        small insects
      - shields from abrasions
      - reflectivity
        
        keeps plan from overheating
      - water loss prevention
    - - fatty substance on outer walls
        
        impermeable to water
        
        water retention
      - builds up as pure layer called cuticle
      - resist digestive enzymes
        
        protects against fungi and bacteria
      - inhibit CO2 to enter
        
        totally impermeable= plant starvation
        
        Way around this?
        
        guard cells + stomatal pore = stoma
        
        stay closed during night
        
        can however be opened at night for some plants
        
        guard cells swell with water
        
        allow CO2 in
        
        O2 out
    - - hairs
      - elongated epidermal cells
        
        make it difficult to walk on, land on, or bite into
        
        shade underlying tissues
        
        capture water molecules
      - main die after maturity and cell wall remains to act as protection
  - - - cells fit compactly
        
        fleshy stems have aerenchyma instead of parenchyma
        
        open tissue with large intercellular spaces
        
        mainly in tubers and corms
        
        aquatic plants
        
        large cortical air chambers for buoyancy
    - - composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and some collenchyma
      - or can be complex
        
        contains many specialized cells
        
        secrete latex, mucilage, or resin
      - some contain crystals of calcium, or deposits of silica
  - - - Xylem
        
        conducts water and minerals
        
        water enters through stem and conducted towards leaves and stem
        
        two types of cells
        
        types of sclerenchyma
        
        tracheids
        
        obtain water from tracheids below and pass it to those above
        
        pits aligned adjacent to one another
        
        pit membranes
        
        1 more item...
        
        vessel elements
        
        move water with less friction
        
        individual cells with primary and secondary walls before maturity
        
        perforation
        
        large hole digested through primary wall
        
        aligned adjacent to one another
        
        1 more item...
        
        vessel
        
        stack of vessel elements
        
        1 more item...
        
        either referred as tracheary element
        
        starts as parenchyma with thin primary cell wall
        
        cell soon becomes long and narrow
        
        secondary wall deposited
        
        impermeable to water
        
        primary wall is reached by secondary forming annular thickening
        
        3 more items...
        
        cell dies, leaving a hollow tubular wall
      - Phloem
        
        distributes sugars and minerals
        
        pick up sugars where they are abundant and store in fruits or organs
        
        two types of conducting cells
        
        sieve cells
        
        keeps sieve tube alive
        
        companion cells
        
        nucleus with ribosomes
        
        many passageways between companion and sieve for loading and unloading of sugar
        
        sieve tube members
        
        sieve tube
        
        sieve plate with pores
    - - Xylem + Phloem
        
        collateral
        
        strands run parallel
      - located interior to cortex
      - arrangement
        
        eudicots
        
        one ring around pith
        
        monocot
        
        distributed out as complex network
        
        scattered, but are in there place for a reason
- - - - mitosis and cytokinesis
      - push meristem upwards
        
        lower cells left behind as part of younger stem
    - - tissues produced by apical
    - - growth and tissue formation from apical
  - - - cells divide and produce for region below
        
        protoxylem
        
        annular or helical secondary walls
        
        metaxylem
        
        largest trecheary elements
      - visual differentiation occurs
        
        cells stop growing and begin to elongate
        
        vessel elements or tracheids
  - - - cells are short lived
      - never become differentiated
      - sieve areas are small
    - - cells differentiate fully
      - large sieve areas and companion cells
  - - - epidermal cells in early stages of differentiation
    - - young cells of xylem and phloem
    - - stages of pith and cortex
- - - - part of the leafs functions can interfere with this process
        
        water proof
        
        pathogen resistant
      - absorb light energy to convert CO2 to carbs
        
        leaf flat and wide for maximum absorption of light
        
        light only penetrates a short distance
        
        leaves thin to allow chlorophyll to absorb light
        
        light absorbing side = leaf blade/ lamina
        
        smooth, and ventral surface
        
        underside = dorsal surface
        
        larger veins seen
  - - - prevents shading from leaves above
    - - long, thin, flexible allows leaves to flutter in wind
        
        makes it hard for maximum CO2 absorption
      - does however provide protection from insects
  - - - self shading is not a problem
  - - - long and tapered
      - self shading occurs at the base
        
        most is exposed to light
      - lack a petiole
        
        form a sheathing leaf base
  - - - many blades/leaflets
        
        allows for turbulence over leaves in a breeze
        
        CO2 brought in more and heat reduced
        
        allows for protection against invaders
        
        leaves act as barriers
        
        also if pathogen affects one, the effected dies and carries pathogen way
        
        never bear buds, or have terminal buds
      - attached by a petiolue to an extension of the petiole, the rachis
  - - - biologists believe all function so well, that no distinct shape or size is better then the other
      - some plants may even have more then one type of leaves
  - - - distribute water
      - collect sugars
      - basal angiosperms = reticulate venation
      - monocots= parallel venation
- - - - thick and fleshy
        
        mesophyll contains very few air spaces
        
        transparent for light absorption
      - shapes that favor water conservation
        
        cylindrical or spherical
        
        consequence of reducing capacity for CO2 uptake
  - - - feasible
      - hardness
        
        due to high amount of sclerenchyma
        
        just below epidermis
        
        epidermis is also thick
        
        very thick cuticle with waxes
        
        resistant to animals, fungi, cold, and UV light
  - - - thick cuticle, and thickened cell walls on epidermis and hypodermis
      - contain unpalatable chemicals
      - leaves are simple, and never compound
        
        forms
        
        needles
        
        scale-like leaves form shield like cover on stems
        
        mainly perennial
        
        remain on the stem for year
        
        evergreens
  - - - low temps
      - drying action of wind
      - form tight layer around stem tip
        
        tougher and waxier
      - no photosynthesis
        
        gives different structure then foliage leaves
  - - - axillary buds modified
        
        protection
        
        no mesophyll parenchyma or vascular tissue present
        
        mesophylll= closely packed fibers
        
        lignin deposited to walls after maturation
        
        cells die and dry out
  - - - contain cells that are capable of sensing contact with an object
        
        uses object as support as it coils around
  - - - lack palisade and spongy mesophyll
        
        contain prominent bundle sheaths with large chlorophyllous cells
        
        sheaths covered in mesophyll cells that come from vascular bundle
        
        gives plant a mechanism of CO2 transport
        
        plants adapt to arid environment
  - - - gain nutrients and chemicals needed
    - - active= moves
        
        Drosera
        
        upper surface covered in glandular trichomes that secrete sticky digestive enzymes
        
        leaf curls around captured victim
        
        Venus Flytrap
      - passive= no movement
        
        Nepenthes, Darlingtonia, and Sarracenia
        
        lamina is tubular and secretes watery digestive enzyme and contains trichomes
- - - - loss of H2O= transpiration
    - - large amount of flat, tabular, ordinary epidermal cells
        
        epidermal have a layer of cutin
        
        aids in retention of water
        
        digestion by fungi difficult
        
        smooth surface prevents sticking
      - guard cells and trichomes
    - - upper
        
        low amount of stomata
      - lower
        
        high number of stomata
        
        allows for better water retention
        
        protection against invaders
    - - can provide shade on upper part
      - lower
        
        prevent rapid air movement and slow water loss
      - make difficult for walking or chewing for predators
        
        may even sting
  - - - upper layer of cells
        
        most photosynthetic tissue of plants
        
        one cell layer thick
        
        cells separated slightly to expose each to the intracellular spaces
        
        large surface maximum dissolution of CO2
    - - lower portion
        
        loose aerenchyma that permits CO2 to diffuse rapidly from stomata to all parts of the leaf's interior
  - - - eudicot= 1 large midrib/midvein
        
        lateral veins branch into narrow minor veins
        
        minor release water from xylem and load sugar into phloem
        
        site of material exchange
        
        contain no fibers, or other nonconducting cells
        
        lateral/midrib used in conduction
        
        contain both primary xylem on upper and phloem on under
        
        fibers arranged as a bundle sheath around vascular tissues
        
        protection
        
        other cells: mucilage, tannin, or starch could be present
  - - - palms= massive
    - - not compact, and aerenchymous
      - collenchyma present for support
    - - multiple vascular bundles
        
        =leaf traces
        
        may branch further or fuse with one another
        
        arranged in many patterns
        
        most fuse into the midvein
    - - two flaps of flesh
        
        protect apical meristem
        
        photosynthesis in some plants
- - - - leaf primordium at the base
        
        protrusion that extends upward as a cone
        
        increases in thickness forming bulk of midrib
        
        growing outward forms forms lamina
        
        lamina extension aloows stomata, trichomes, and vascular bundles to differentiate
        
        becomes taller then apical
        
        consists of leaf protoderm and ground meristem
        
        cells are meristematic, have dense cytoplasm, amd small vacuoles
        
        cells in middle differentiate into provascular tissue and then into xylem and phloem bundles
    - - leaves initiated in the summer or autumn before they mature
        
        become dormant and part of a resting terminal/axillary bud
        
        next growth period the bud opens and leaves expand as vacuoles fill with water
        
        little mitosis, only cell maturation
  - - - cells adjacent grow upward along with it
        
        cylinder soon encircles shoot apical meristem
        
        conical leaf primordium gives rise to lamina
        
        cells stay active mitotically
        
        extends leaf
        
        shoot apex enlarges, forms new tissues, and initiates next leaf primordium
        
        sheathing base
- - - - carbs used to produce new shoot in spring
    - - also in a more stable environment
  - - - come in monocots
      - once in contact with soil surface they transport nutrients and H2O back to plant
      - place tension on stem
        
        stabilizers
        
        if undergo secondary growth they can allow branch to grow further
    - - plate like and grow on tropical plants
      - brace against wind
  - - - attached to branches of trees
      - roots spread along surface of bark and roots dangle in air
      - adapted for drought conditions
        
        root epidermis (velamen) composed of several layers of dead white cells
        
        waterproof barrier
  - - - ectomycorrhizal relationship
        
        fungal hyphae invade root cortex but never invade the cells themselves
      - endomycorrhizal association
        
        fungal hyphae invade roots as far as endodermis
        
        can not pass the casparian strip
  - - - develop symbiotic relationship with bacteria
        
        Rhizobium
        
        sit in infection thread
        
        cause formation of root nodule
        
        bacterium released into cell cytoplasm
        
        can now convert N2 into compounds
        
        supply bacteria sugar
  - - - highly modified roots
        
        firmly adhere to a host
        
        secreting sticky adhesive
        
        growing around it
        
        penetrate host
        
        forcing shaft of cells through host's dermal system
        
        expanding haustorium rapidly, cracking host's epidermis
        
        make contact with host's xylem
        
        continuous vessel from host to parasite created
  - - - seeds germinate and grow rapidly around and down the tree
        
        absorbs water that runs down tree
        
        once it reaches soil roots branch
        
        typically results in death of the host
  - - - upper portion contracts slowly
        
        stem pulled down and and kept at soil level
        
        bulbs are buried if any
        
        due to change in shape of cortex cells
- - - - specific structure and growth pattern
      - cells closest to apical meristem are meristematic
        
        files of cells pushed forward
        
        cells on the edge of this group grow towards the sides and proliferate
        
        cells develop dense starch grains and ER displaced to forward end of cell
        
        pushed further towards cap results in changes structure and metabolism
        
        ER less conspicuous
        
        starch digested
        
        dictyosomes secrete mucigel
        
        middle lamella breaks down and releases cells
        
        cells usually crushed
        
        results in cap constantly being regenerated
  - - - root is more orderly
      - cells do not synthesize DNA in the central part
        
        mitotically inactive area is the quiescent center
        
        more resistant harmful agents
        
        reserve of healthy cells
        
        apical damage results in cells becoming active to replace damaged cells
  - - - some meristematic activity, but mostly elongation occurs
        
        cells begin to differentiate in a visible pattern
        
        outer most cells= protoderm that becomes epidermis
        
        center= provascular tissue that becomes primary xylem and phloem
        
        protoxylem and protophloem are closest to stem
        
        ground tissue between protoderm and provascular tissue
        
        uniform parenchyma
        
        tissues are permeable
        
        minerals enter through apoplast by diffusion
  - - - increase in absorption of H2O and minerals
      - have thin cuticle
      - zone of elongation merges with zone of maturation
        
        no distinct boundary between the two
      - cortex cells enlarge
        
        mainly aid in transfer of minerals from epidermis to vascular tissue
        
        diffusion through cell walls intercellular spaces
        
        absorption by cytoplasm
        
        transferred from cell to cell
      - endodermis
        
        innermost cells in cylindrical shape
        
        cells covered in casparian rings
        
        lignin and suberin main componet
        
        control types of minerals that enter xylem
        
        cortex cells do not filter well so the job is put upon rings
        
        cells close together
      - vascular tissues
        
        metaxylem and metaphloem become differentiated and functional
        
        arrangement
        
        xylem is solid mass in the middle surrounded by strands of phloem
        
        no pith
        
        monocots
        
        xylem and phloem distributed through out ground tissue
      - pericycle
        
        between endodermis and vascular tissue
        
        parenchyma cells
        
        initiate lateral root growth
  - - - die and regenerate
    - - casparian strips cover
      - represent passageway for absorption of minerals
    - - watertight sheath
        
        keeps water in older roots
    - - caused by H2O absorption in root hair zone
        
        would cause water to leak out if not for mature endodermal cells
- - - - tap root from embryonic root
        
        radicle
        
        largest root in the system
      - lateral roots can produce more lateral roots
      - may become swollen
      - may go under secondary growth as well
        
        =tree bark or wood
  - - - =fibrous root system
        
        radicle dies after germination
        
        root primordia grout out from radicle base
        
        first stages of fibrous root system
        
        adventitious roots
        
        do not arise from pre-existing roots
        
        are not radicles
        
        increase the absorptive and transport capacities of root system
    - - undergo secondary growth
        
        increased quantity of wood (xylem)
        
        also increases number of leaves, and absorptive roots
    - - do not undergo secondary growth
        
        stem formed
        
        vascular bundles, tracheary elements, and sieve tube is set
        
        conducting capacity can not be increased
        
        however some monocots can produce stolons or rhizomes for increased growth
        
        horizontal shoots branch and form adventitious roots
        
        water supplied directly to new roots
        
        must stay close to the source of water supply though
  - - - no leaf axils or axillary buds
    - - =place where growth in length occurs
      - apical meristem
        
        elongate only at meristematic regions
        
        root embedded in hard matrix
        
        unable for all parts of the root to extend at once
        
        apical growth the tip pushes through soil for growth
        
        protected by thick layer of cells
        
        root cap
        
        constantly worn away by soil
        
        renewed by cell multiplication
        
        dictyosomes secrete mucigel
        
        lubricates root
        
        causes soil to release nutrients
        
        mucigel components foster growth of soil microbes to aid in release of nutrients fro soil
    - - just behind root cap and apical meristem
        
        cells undergo division and expansion
    - - epidermal cells extend out as narrow trichomes
        
        root hairs increase roots surface area
        
        can enter tiny crevices between soil and extract water
        
        give off CO2 by respiration
        
        binds with soil matrix to form carbonic acid
        
        releases nutrients from soil
- - - - crushes endodermis that is torn away
      - pushes outward and destroys cells of cortex and epidermis and breaking into endodermis
        
        once it emerges it has formed a root cap
        
        establishes connection to vascular tissues of parent root
- - - - cross of parents with different genotypes
      - yields genetic diversity
    - - total number of alleles in sex cells of all individuals of a population
      - Hardy & Weinberg
        
        sexual reproduction= constant ratio of 60%:20%:15%:5%
      - sexual reproduction does not change gene pool of population, unless other factors take place
  - - - all genomes subjected to mutagenic factors
      - significance of mutation depends on the size of the population
    - - events an organism can not adapt
        
        kills all presence of those alleles
        
        accidents act as a selective force
        
        weak alleles lost
        
        strong survive to be passed on
        
        meteorite
        
        volcanic eruption
        
        droughts or floods
      - small or large events
    - - humans change allele frequency of a gene pool on purpose
        
        selective breeding
        
        crops
        
        flower color
        
        resistance to disease
        
        survive with less water
        
        flowering longer
        
        animals
        
        often carried out with in conjunction of artificial mutation
        
        acridine dyes
        
        UV light or gamma rays
    - - survival of the fittest
        
        individuals more adapted to a situation or environment live and less adapted do not
        
        evolution
        
        differential survival
        
        survival of organisms with different phenotypes
      - two conditions must be met before natural selection can occur
        
        population must produce more offspring than can possibly grow and survive to maturity in the habitat
        
        Progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles
    - - purpose
      - intent
      - planning
      - voluntary decision making
      - voluntary actions are the only way these can apply
        
        humans and other primates
  - - - loss of a mutation that could be beneficial to survival due to death of host or no reproduction
        
        accident
      - insect attack
      - drought
      - cold
      - pathogenic fungus
- - - - flowers
      - leaves
      - fruits
      - shoots
      - trichomes
      - most structure or metabolism changes come quickly
        
        many mutations become selectively advantageous
- - - - some exceptions exist
        
        hybrids
  - - - so changed= new species
    - - some of population evolves into a new species
      - rest remain the same
  - - - gene flow
    - - grains carry one full haploid genome and all alleles
        
        pollen can move to very distant pants
        
        results in fertilization of a different type of plant
        
        contains new alleles
    - - parents have long dispersal mechanisms
        
        carried to new place where it can transfer alleles
    - - small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
  - - - abiological reproductive barrier
        
        physical, nonliving feature that prevents exchanging of genes
      - biological reproductive barrier
        
        biological phenomenon preventing successful gene flow
  - - - entering new habitat with no competition or environmental stress
      - genetic offspring resemble the founder
  - - - two evolve to resemble one another
      - two cannot converge to the point of producing the same species
        
        only phenotypes converge, not genotypes
- - - - chemosynthesis
        
        chemical and physical processes with no divine intervention
        
        chemicals from earth reacting over millions of years to produce the molecules of today necessary for life
        
        four conditions required
        
        right inorganic chemicals
        
        appropriate energy sources
        
        time
        
        absences of destructive O2
        
        Oparin and Haldane 1942
  - - - 1st atmosphere lost due to hydrogen being a light gas
      - 2nd atmosphere produced from release of rock matrix composing earth
        
        H2S
        
        NH3
        
        CH4
        
        water
        
        early reducing atmosphere
    - - UV and gamma radiation
      - heat
      - electricity
      - volcanoes producing lightning
    - - had no limits due to lack of free molecular oxygen
  - - - all small molecules essential to life produced this way
        
        amino acids
        
        lipids
        
        sugars
        
        nitrogen bases
  - - - requires high concentration of monomers
  - - - natural selection favoring extension
  - - - world rusts
      - aerobic respiration
- - - - colors of wavelength
    - - light intensity
      - more light on sunny days then cloudy
      - where they grow
        
        near or away from equator
        
        in the shadows
      - shape and organization of plant
      - time of day
    - - number of hours per day sunlight is available
        
        equator
        
        12 hour long days
        
        poles
        
        longer days in midsummer
        
        night only in midwinter
        
        to much light
        
        greater amounts of photosynthesis
        
        starch fills chloroplasts and photosynthesis completely stops
        
        photosynthesis energy exceeds that consumed by respiration and growth
  - - - temperate and tropical
        
        palisade parenchyma
        
        spongy mesophyll
      - hot dry climates
        
        leaf cells packed together
        
        no intercellular spaces
        
        difficult to dissolve CO2
        
        slows growth
    - - cylindrical leaves
        
        few stomata open
        
        CO2 absorption slowed
  - - - stomata open
        
        CO2 in
        
        H2O out
    - - stomata closed
      - retains water
      - no CO2 in
        
        CO2 produced from respiration used photosynthetically
  - - - transported
      - concentrated
    - - kept away from RuBP carboxylaze
    - - chlorophyllous sheath of cells surrounded by mesophyll cells
      - mesophyll cells contain PEP carboxylase
        
        high CO2 affinity
        
        strong bond
        
        never picks up O2
        
        produces oxaloacetate
        
        reduced to malate by NADPH
        
        pyruvate produced
        
        moved back to mesophyll
        
        receives phosphate from ATP
        
        converted bacPEP
      - cyclic electron transport
        
        bundle sheath chloroplasts
        
        pumping protons to make ATP
    - - corn
      - sugarcane
      - sorghum
  - - - succulent leaves
    - - PEP carboxylated
      - oxaloacetate produced
      - malate reduced to other acids
    - - stomata closed during hottest parts of the day
      - open at night when its cool
        
        allows H2O diffusion
        
        causes problem for photosynthesis
        
        plant can not store ATP or NADPH at night
        
        solution
        
        CO2 stored on acids till day time
        
        malate or other acids broken down
        
        release CO2 for C3 metabolism
    - - selectively advantageous
        
        hot, dry climates
        
        survival more important then growth
      - not selectively advantageous
        
        moister, milder climates
    - - cactus family
      - orchids
      - bromeliads
      - lilies
      - euphorbias
- - - - able to absorb lots of H2O and CO2
      - able to store lots of carbohydrates
  - - - 350nm to 760nm of radiation used
      - visible light
    - - stroma reactions
        
        react with CO2
        
        produce carbohydrates
    - - material that absorbs certain wavelengths
        
        transfer absorbed energy to electrons
        
        chemical reactions
      - picks up distinctive color
        
        melanin
        
        in our skin
        
        protect us by absorbing light
        
        flowers, fruits, and animals
        
        protection
        
        attraction of mates or pollinators
        
        camouflage
      - capture 5% of energy available
        
        chlorophyll a
        
        absorbs only red and blue light
        
        accessory pigments
        
        used to absorb other wavelengths
        
        pass energy onto chlorophyll a
        
        types
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        2 more items...
        
        carotenoids
        
        2 more items...
        
        double bonds interacting with single
        
        visible light
        
        activates electron
        
        high energy
        
        chemical reactions
        
        not used it returns to ground state
        
        releases light
        
        fluorescence
        
        molecule
        
        ground to excited state
        
        essential photosynthetic pigment in
        
        plants
        
        algae
        
        cyanobacteria
        
        unaltered for 3 billion years
      - held in place by proteins
        
        light-harvesting complex proteins
        
        thylakoid membranes
        
        antenna complex
        
        chlorophylls + carotenoids + proteins
        
        transfer energy to reaction center
        
        special chlorophyll a molecules
        
        can donate electrons to acceptor
      - photosynthetic units
        
        all carriers and pigments working together
        
        packed in granules of thylakoids
        
        contain reaction center and antenna complex
        
        types
        
        photosystem I
        
        little chlorophyll b
        
        absorb red light of 700 nm
        
        P700
        
        photosystem II
        
        chlorophyll b levels = to a levels
        
        reduces P700
        
        works backward from photosystem I
        
        P680
        
        passes to ETC
        
        1 more item...
    - - CO2 converted to carbohydrate
      - Calvin/Benson Cycle
      - occur in stroma
      - RuBP
        
        reacts with CO2
        
        forms PGA molecule
        
        ATP added
        
        1,3-diphosphogylcerate
        
        reduced by NADPH
        
        2 more items...
  - - - rearranged and altered to form more complex molecules
        
        anabolism
        
        anabolic pathways
        
        synthetic pathways of polysaccharides and fats
        
        storing energy
        
        glucose and fructose
        
        short term
        
        anabolic synthesis
        
        1 more item...
        
        starch
        
        long term
        
        amylose and amylopectin components
        
        2 more items...
        
        stored in chloroplasts and amyloplasts
- - - - sun's light energy captured by pigments
        
        highly energetic
        
        large molecules
        
        make smaller intermediates
        
        ATP
        
        photophosphorylation
        
        only plants with the right pigments and organelles
        
        consumed for high energy compounds
        
        ADP to ATP
        
        2 more items...
        
        occurs in chloroplast with light
      - light energy to chemical
      - Photoautotrophs
        
        energy from light
        
        small in organic molecules assimilated to own tissues
  - - - oxidized compounds
        
        carbon dioxide
        
        sulfate
        
        nitrate
      - Oxidized
        
        loses of electrons
        
        mainly contain oxygen
        
        compounds in the environment
      - Reduced
        
        gain of electrons
        
        mainly contain hydrogen
        
        compounds in organisms
    - - important to plants
        
        take in H20 and CO2
        
        converted into compounds
        
        carbohydrates
        
        fats
        
        highly oxidized compounds
        
        eaten by heterotrophs
        
        gain reduced compounds
        
        reducing power less important
      - Electrons
        
        moving and handling
        
        added to small and mobile molecules
        
        NAD+
        
        Reduced to NADH
        
        reducing agent
        
        oxidizing agent
        
        NAP+
        
        Reduced to NADPH
        
        reducing agent
        
        oxidizing agent
        
        molecules are recycled
  - - - contain a cofactor heme group
        
        iron atom
        
        carries electrons
        
        recycles between +2 and +3 oxidation states
      - intrinsic membrane proteins
        
        integral part of thylakoids
      - carry electrons between closely related sites
        
        do not diffuse through stroma
    - - transport electrons over a short distance
      - pick up 2 electrons and bind 2 protons
        
        long hydrocarbon tail
        
        hydrophobic
        
        dissolve into lipid component of chloroplasts
    - - small protein
      - carries electrons on a metal atom
        
        copper used
        
        reduced +1
        
        oxidized to +2
      - loosely associated with chloroplast
        
        travels along surface
        
        does not travel far
- - - - spores
      - pollen
      - seeds
    - - depends on factors affecting certain plants
      - some components impact directly
        
        operational habitat
        
        pollinators
    - - abiotic= nonliving
      - biotic= living
  - - - critically important to all organisms
        
        extremes: lowest winter temp and highest summer temp
      - most species are restricted to certain regions due to not being able to live in required climates
        
        orchids restricted to tropics because they are frost free habitats
      - =rainfall, temp, humidity, and winds
        
        moisture= rain or snow
        
        supplies water but can also damage
        
        seasonal extremes or timing of precipitation
      - growing season
        
        determined by last date of the last severe killing frost of spring and the first killing frost of autumn
        
        length must be adequate for repopulation
      - numerous metabolic processes respond to abiotic factors
        
        tolerance range
        
        between high and low extremes
        
        growth and reproduction
    - - formed from breakdown of rock
        
        vary in amounts of micronutrients and macronutrients
        
        all rock deficient in nitrogen
        
        first invaders of new soil= pioneers
        
        tolerate severe conditions
        
        often associated with nitrogen fixing prokaryotes
        
        change soil conditions as they live on it
        
        water holding capability increased and chemical weathering accelerated
        
        after many years it develops soil profile with three horizons
        
        A horizon= upper zone and zone of leaching and nutrients from it washed down to next layer
        
        B horizon= middle layer and is zone of deposition. Nutrients from A accumulate making it rich in nutrients
        
        C horizon= bottom layer composed of parent rock and fragments
    - - many factors
        
        length of days and seasonal variations varied
        
        amount of light energy
        
        soil formation affected and temperature
        
        high altitudes= high winds, poor soil, much of the year is cold, and snow and ice is only way to get water causing drought
    - - phenomenas
        
        fires, landslides, snow avalanches, and floods
        
        produce a radical change in an ecosystem quickly
        
        affect biotic factors directly
        
        eliminates many or all individuals of an area
        
        man made= insecticides, hunting, and habitat destruction
  - - - individuals modify a habitat by just being in it
      - habitat modification can be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral
        
        oak forests modify habitat by producing a dense canopy that shades forest floor for oak and beech seedlings to grow
        
        =beneficial in aiding of successful reproduction
    - - possibility of interaction created by several individuals occupying an area
        
        mutualism= interaction beneficial
        
        competiton= disadvantageous
        
        limited supply of resources used by both species
        
        competing for light, soil nutrients, water, and pollinators
        
        result= competitive exclusion meaning whichever species is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem by superior competitor
        
        very little competition due to each species having a niche
        
        adapted to a set of particular conditions
        
        alternative to this theory is is species overlap in their tolerance
        
        long term competition= natural selection causes modification of species
        
        geographic ranges
        
        diversity of biotic and abiotic factors
        
        causes different subpopulations to form
        
        subspecies ecotypes formed that are specialized in response to a certain ecosystem factor
        
        transparent tests performed to see if ecotypes really exist
        
        parents grown in a intermediate place, or common garden
    - - animals, fungi, and prokaryotes
        
        interrelationships can be beneficial or detrimental
        
        mutualism
        
        pollination
        
        seed dispersal by frugivores (fruit eating)
        
        common relationships
        
        one species benefits and the other is unaffected
        
        birds nesting in trees
        
        Predation
        
        one species benefits and the other is harmed
        
        one seeks the other for food or other resource
        
        herbivores eat plants, process is herbivory
        
        browsing= twigs and leaves of shrubs
        
        grazing= eating herbs
        
        Pathogenic
        
        fungi and bacteria
        
        cause disease or kill plant quickly
        
        some fungus may for mutualistic relationships with plants
- - - - ability of a plant to spread is a result of its abiotic and biotic adaptations of the area
      - health of plant determined by limiting factor
        
        applies to all aspects of a plants interactions with its habitat
        
        plant receives more of the factor limiting it causes increased growth till another limiting factor pops up
        
        any factor of the ecosystem can act a limiting factor
        
        water, temp, and soil richness
        
        biotic factors are also critical
        
        pollination or seed dispersing can not occur unless if their animal partners are not present
        
        soil factors produce abrupt boundaries due to mineral composition and texture
    - - three types
        
        random
        
        no obvious, identifiable pattern to position of individuals
        
        clumped
        
        spacing between plants is either small or large but rarely average
        
        uniform
        
        all individuals are evenly spaced
        
        roots of individuals establish zones that prevent germination or growth of others
        
        release chemicals= allelochemicals
        
        inhibition= allelopathy
  - - - generation time
        
        length of time from birth to death of one individual
      - biotic potential
        
        number of offspring produced by an individual that live long enough to reproduce
        
        measured under ideal conditions
        
        but conditions often do not occur in nature
        
        population becomes large and competition occurs
        
        number of individuals that can live in a particular ecosystem is limited
        
        represented by K
        
        represented by r
  - - - growth limited by r
      - carrying capacity governed by K as competition occurs
    - - disturbance usually produces r conditions
        
        biotic potential becomes limiting factor
        
        mutations that increase r are selectively advantageous
        
        r-selected species typically are annuals or small shrubby perennials
        
        increasing species in the area causes cause population to start to fall
    - - population close to carrying capacity causes selection of phenotypes different from those that are beneficial in a dsiturbed habitat
      - K-selected species also face intense competition and adaptations occur
- - - - life forms
  - - - time span can be a day, seasons, or decades
      - plants change with seasons
        
        spring is a time of renewed activity
        
        flowers and new leaves
        
        fruits and mature seeds during the summer
        
        late summer and autumn herbs die, and trees and shrubs develop resting buds
        
        dormancy
        
        tropical ecosystems
        
        wet and dry seasons
  - - - depends on climate, soil, tolerance ranges
        
        stressful climates + poor soil= low number of species
        
        mild climates + rich soil= high number of species
      - competition is intense, but natural selection has resulted in habitat partitioning
        
        species occupying a narrow portion of various resource gradients
        
        increased number of species= more niches that can be filled
  - - - ecosystem contains autotrophs that bring energy into the area
        
        photosynthesis= all energy input
        
        autotrophs= primary producers
        
        first step of any food web
        
        energy and nutrient supply to herbivores
        
        herbivores= secondary consumers
        
        herbivores preyed upon by carnivores
        
        carnivores= secondary consumers
        
        omnivores exist at both trophic levels
        
        decomposers= fungi and bacteria
        
        1 more item...
        
        break down remains of all types of organisms
      - energy and carbon flow
        
        passing of energy and carbon through trophic levels
        
        used for respiration
        
        ATP, heat, CO2, and H2O
        
        CO2 released back into atmosphere for photosynthesis
      - minerals
        
        flow through ecosystem
        
        absorbed by plants from soil for amoinos, ATP, and coenzymes
        
        passed onto herbivores
        
        decomposers release minerals in body that remain after death
        
        maybe be completely lost from an ecosystem
        
        carried away by rain water, stremas, or errosion
        
        carried to ocean to become part of marine ecosystem
      - Energy pyramid
        
        movement of energy and biomass from one trophic level to the next
        
        difficult to measure biomass in an ecosystem