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Language (Vocabulary (Language - A set of sounds and symbols that is used…
Language
Vocabulary
Language - A set of sounds and symbols that is used for communication.
Mutual intelligibility - Two people can understand each other when speaking
Standard Language - one that is published, widely distributed, and purposefully taught
Dialects - Variants of a standard language along regional or ethnic lines
Isogloss - A geographic boundary within which a particular linguistic feature occurs, but such a boundary is rarely a simple line
Language families - What we classify languages into
Subfamilies - what we divide language families into
Sound Shift - A slight change in a word across languages
Proto-Indo-European - First major linguistic hypothesis, proposing the existence of an ancestral Indo-European language
Backward reconstruction - tracks sound shifts and hardening of consonants "backward" toward the original language
Extinct Language a language without any native speakers
Language Divergence - Occurs when spatial interaction among speakers of a language breaks down and the language fragments first into dialects and then into discrete tongues
Language convergence - can take place, collapsing two languages into one
Monolingual states - countries where almost everyone speaks the same language
Multilingual states - Countries where more than one language is used
Global language - common language of trade and commerce used around the world
Place - has a unique location and constitutes a reflection of human activities, ideas, and tangible, durable creations
Toponyms - Place-names
Toponyms
Postcolonial - Newly independent countries changed the names of cities and towns to reflect their independence
Postrevolution - After revolution places may change their names
Memorial - Can change names to memorialize people
Commodifications - International media reach out across the world to buy, sell, and trade toponyms
Dialects
Dialects - Variants of a standard language along regional or ethnic lines
Linguists think about dialects in terms of dialect chains
Hans Kurah published atlases of dialects in the United States, defining Northern, Southern, and Midland dialect in the eastern part of the country
Tracing the Route of Diffusion of Proto-Indo-European
Conquest theory - Holds that early speakers of Proto-Endo-European spread from east to west on horseback, overpowering earlier inhabitants and beginning difussion and differentiation of Indo-European tongues
Different theory says that Proto-Indo-European diffused westward through Europe with the diffusion of agriculture
Dispersal Hypothesis - Holds that the Indo-European languages that arose from Proto-Indo-European were first carried eastward into Southwest Asia, next around the Caspian Sea, and then across the Russian-Ukrainian plains and on into the Balkans
The Subfamilies
Romance languages - French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese lie in the areas of Europe that were once controlled by the Roman Empire
Germanic languages - English, German, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish reflect the expansion of people out of northern Europe to the west and south
Slavic languages - Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian, Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian developed as Slavic people migrated from a base in present-day.
Language and Politics
Finish, Estonian, and Hungarian are major languages of the Uralic family
Turkish, Kazakh, Uigur, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek language are apart of the Altaic family
Basque language, Euskera
Covers a very small land are
no way related to any other language family in Europe
Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca is a language used among speakers of different languages for the purposes of trade and commerce
Pidgen language - When people speaking two or more languages are in contact and they combine their vocabulary
Creole language - a pidgin language that has developed a more complex structure and vocabulary and has become the native language of a group of people
Language and Culture
American, Australian, Canadian, Russian, and New Zealand governments each had policies of assimilation in the 20th century
Languages can reveal much about the way people and cultures view reality
Some African languages have no word or term for the concept God
What is a Language?
Linguist Max Weinreich said that "a language is a dialect with an army
Languages that are recognized separately but are mutually intelligible - Serbian and Croatian, Hindi and Urdu, Spanish and Portuguese, and Novajo and Apache
Standardized Languages
Language is dynamic: new discoveries, technologies, and ideas require new words
Standard language - one that is published, widely distributed, and purposefully taught
Language Formation
William Jones discovered that the vocabulary and grammatical forms of Sanskrit bore resemblance to ancient Greek and Latin he learned while in college
Jakob Grimm believed that these three consonants would change over time in a predictable way
Reconstructing the Vocabulary of Proto Indo-European and Its Ancient Ancestor
Vladislav Illich-Svityvh and Aharon Dolgpolsky began working in the 1960s, using deep reconstruction to re-create ancient languages
Nostratic vocabulary revealed much about the lives and environments of its speakers like: they had no names for domesticated plants or animals, they were hunters gatherers, and wolves were becoming dogs at the time
The Languages of Europe
Indo-European language family dominates Europe, big parts of Asia (Russia and India), North and South America, Australia, and some parts of Southern Africa.
Indo-European language is broken into subfamilies like Romance, Germanic, and Slavic
How Do Languages Diffuse?