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Course Mind Map # #, Community Ecology (Predator-Prey interactions…

- - - - find a new prey
    - - the amount of time it takes to consume
    - - feed rate is higher
      - more prey is around
      - predators functional response
        
        prey dependent
        
        dependent on prey density
  - - - amount of prey that can be harvested with effort
- - - - important due to global warming
    - - walking, flying, swimming
    - - the dispersal of seeds or spores
    - - not surplus or spores or unneeded
- - - - have years to evolve and adapt
  - - - larger areas are more diverse
    - - types of organisms
        
        they adapt to aspects of the area
    - - formula: S=cA
      - relationship between area & species
- - - - organisms eat the same resources
      - less available for other organisms
    - - one organism restricts another
  - - - causes predators to be low
    - - decreases the other species
- - - - plants and algae
    - - herbivores
    - - carnivores
- - - - lava flow and ash
      - volcanoes from substrates
- - - - leaflets spirally arranged simple leaves
  - - - a hole in the integument that permitted the sperm cell to swim after the egg
    - - where the microspore settled
- - - - composed completely of tracheids
- - - - a parent organism breaks into fragments, each capable of growing independently into a new organism
    - - the individual parts become self-sufficient by establishing adventitious roots
  - - - diploid adults have sex organs that produce haploid sex cells called gametes
        
        either sperm or eggs
        
        by meiosis
        
        one sperm and one egg are brought together forming a new single diploid cell called a zygote
      - the plants life cycle is more complex
        
        the plants you are familiar with are all apart of one phase called the sporophyte phase/ generation
        
        sporophytes are always diploid
        
        have organs that are capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        in plants meiosis results in spores
        
        the difference between spores and gametes is huge
        
        gametes can fuse with each other in a process called syngamy
        
        1 more item...
        
        plant spores can't undergo syngamy
        
        1 more item...
- - - - together make up the corolla
      - sepals and petals together constitute the flower's perianth
    - - differ from leaves as they contain pigments other than chlorophyll
  - - - collectively known as the androecium
    - - filament (its stalk)
      - the anther
        
        where pollen is actually produced
        
        composed of diploid cells
        
        four large columns of tissues become distinct as some cells enlarge and prepare for meiosis
        
        the microsporocytes continue to enlarge and then undergo meiosis each producing 4 microspores
        
        neighboring anther cells, in a layer called the tapetum
        
        act as nurse cells
        
        contribute to microspore development and maturation
  - - - located at the highest level on the receptacle
    - - stigma
        
        collects pollen grains
      - style
        
        elevates the stigma to useful position
      - ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
    - - usually fused together into a single compound structure
        
        called a pistil
    - - regions of tissue that bear small structure called ovules
        
        ovules have a short stalked called a funiculus
      - has a central mass of parenchyma called the nucellus
- - - - there it divides mitotically, producing a large vegetative cell and a small lens shaped generative cell
        
        then divides and creates two sperm cells
    - - this penetrates into the loose, open tissue of the stigma
  - - - producing two, four and then eight haploid nuclei all in a single undivided cell
    - - walls then form around the nuclei, and the large, eight-nucleate megaspore becomes a megagametophyte with 7 cells and one that is binucleate.
        
        the 7 cells are one large central cell with two polar nuclei, three small antipodal cells and an egg apparatus consisting of to synergies and an egg
- - - - it is triploid, containing three full sets of genes
        
        both sperm nuclei undergo fusions, one with the egg and the other with the polar nuclei
        
        this is called double fertilization
  - - - the zygote grows into a small cluster of cells, part of which become the embryo proper; the other part becomes a short stalk-like structure called the suspensor
        
        this pushes the embryo deep into the endosperm
        
        the suspensor is usually delicate and ephemeral in angiosperms
        
        it is crushed by the later growth of the embryo and not easily detected in a mature seed
        
        cells at one end of the suspensor continue to divide mitotically, developing into an embryo
        
        the cells are first arranged as a small sphere, the globular stage
        
        the end of the embryo farther from the suspensor initiates two primordial that will grow into two cotyledons in basal angiosperms and eudicots
        
        later in a torpedo stage, the embryo is an elongated cylinder: a short axis is established, consisting of the radicle, epicotyl and hypecotyl
- - - - can be tough as stones or a cherry pit or super thin
- - - - is pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or another flower of the same species
      - compatibility barriers
        
        chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
  - - - a species might have an individual that produces only carpellate flowers
      - examples:
        
        marijuana
        
        dates
        
        papaya
      - life cycle
        
        microgametophytes
        
        megagametophytes
        
        staminate sporophytes
        
        carpellate flowers
    - - is a condition of having staminate flowers, located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
      - examples
        
        corn
        
        cattails
  - - - a flower becoming adaptive from visitation by a particular insect, and the insects for efficient exploitation of the flower
  - - - epigynous
      - also can result if receptacle tissue grows upward around the ovary
    - - superior ovary
      - hypogynious parts
- - - - leaves arranged in three rows with a midrib
      - leaves are only one cell thick except at midrib and along margin
      - cuticle only occurs on upper surface
        
        the underside is uncuticlized, capable of absorbing water directly from rain
  - - - conducts water and dissolved minerals
      - each hydroid has a lepatoids
        
        elongated cells that lose cytoplasm when mature
        
        resemble sieve cells
    - - only anchor on stem
      - they lack chloroplast and have red walls
      - small multicellular trichome-like structures , this penetrates the substrate
  - - - this resembles filamentous algae
      - number of chloroplasts in each cells distinguishes
    - - begins with a spore
        
        germinates and then sends out a long slender chlorophyllous cell
    - - a tuft of gamatophores may appear to be independent plants
        
        when they all come from a single protozoan
  - - - short stalk surrounded by the sterile cells
    - - can be clustered at the stem tip
- - - - opening the sporangium when the air is dry
      - bend inward when its's humid
  - - - cell on bottom of the archegonium develops into small bulbous tissue
  - - - called columella
      - contains an outer layer of sterile cells
        
        and inner layer of sterile cells
- - - - jacket of sterile cells always present
- - - - spermatophytes
    - - vascular cryptogams
    - - non-vascular
        
        bryophytes
      - first plants that arose
- - - - code for enzymes in cutting
      - cuts the insertion sequence out putting into DNA somewhere else
    - - incorporated into chromosomal DNA by DNA ligase
  - - - occurs in spacer DNA between two genes
        
        no effects
- - - - complete set of genes
  - - - genotype trait over other version
    - - lesser trait
- - - - shape, size and metabolism
  - - - combine alleles
      - better adapted individuals
        
        increase copy of their alleles
    - - the offspring are identical to parent and siblings
      - same DNA
      - same alleles
    - - plant that has poor capacity
        
        dies
      - plant with superior H2O/ stress resistance
        
        lives
- - - - 2 copies of gene
        
        1 on each of the chromatids
  - - - for DNA synthesizing enzyme
  - - - primers
        
        polymerized nucleotides
  - - - fork runs into replication
        
        new pieces are ligated
        
        attached with covalent bonds
- - - - mitochondrion genomes
      - zygote uptains plastids
  - - - heterozygotes have enough proteins
- - - - these 3 can't perform photophosphorylation due to the fact they lack pigments and organelles
  - - - it is consumed as food or imported by phloem
        
        Compounds work with high-energy phosphate groups
        
        Compounds force their phosphates onto ADP which makes ATP
  - - - ADP phosphorylated into ATP
  - - - atom doesn't carry as many electrons as it could
        
        oxidation reaction
        
        increases positive charge
        
        oxidized compounds
        
        contain great deal of oxygen
      - oxidizing agents
        
        NAD+ NADP+
        
        take away electrons
    - - electrons added to an atom
        
        reduction reaction
        
        reduces positive charge
        
        reduced compounds
        
        contain hydrogen
      - reducing power
        
        ability to force electrons onto compounds
        
        important to plants
        
        takes in carbon dioxide and water
        
        then turns them into carbohydrates, fats and other compounds that are very reduced
      - reducing agents
        
        NADH NADPH
        
        place electrons on compounds
  - - - small portion that contains a cofactor: heme, which holds an iron atom
      - integral part of chloroplast's thylakoid membrane
      - carry electrons between sites extremely close together
    - - like cytochromes, transport electrons over short distances
      - pick up 2 electrons bind 2 protiens
      - long hydrocarbon tail allows for them to dissolve easily into lipid component of chloroplast membrane
    - - small portions that carry on metal atom
      - loosely associated with chloroplast membrane
      - move short distance along surface but doesn't travel far
- - - - dont't interact with CO2
        
        create Intermediates ATP and NADPH
  - - - also referred to as Photons
  - - - absorbs some red and blue light
        
        lets the rest pass through especially high-energy radiation
    - - the molecule goes from a ground state to an excited state
    - - molecules that strongly absorb wavelengths not absorbed by chlorophyll a
      - Chlorophyll b and carotenoids
        
        carotenoids and 300 chlorophylls are called antenna complex
        
        when light strikes the antenna complex the energy is transferred to the reaction center
  - - - little chlorophyll b
        
        P700= reaction center
        
        absorb red light of 700nm most efficiently
        
        excites an electron, which is absorbed by a membrane-bound electron acceptor known as Fx
        
        no bonding orbitial formed
        
        the transferred electron is extremely unstable and the reduced Fx passes it to ferredoxin
        
        electrons are passed from the ferrodoxin to an enzyme ferrodoxin-NADP+ reductase
        
        1 more item...
    - - some have an abundance of chlorophyll b and some have a lack of it
    - - reduces P700
      - best described as working backwards from photosystem 1
      - molecule of plastocynanin, donates an electron to the chlorophyll a of the photosystem 1 reaction center
        
        plastocyanin is oxidized
        
        lacks an electron, receives one from cytochrome b6/f complex
        
        a molecule of Q (quinone) which in turn receives electrons from phaeophytin
        
        phaeophytin is oxidized as it donates an electron to Q
        
        reaction center named p680
        
        1 more item...
    - - electrons are passed from water to P680 in photosystem 2
        
        their energy is boosted by light, then they move down the electron transport chain
        
        to p700 in photosystem 1
        
        where energy is boosted again and they pass through a second ETC to NADP+
        
        reducing to NADPH
      - P680 and P700 are needed to make ATP
  - - - involves the thylakoids, and when they are formed in a region they become known as grana
        
        Thylakoid Lumen
        
        important because some of the enzymes and electron carriers are embedded in the membrane of this
      - the molecules of ferredoxin-NADP reductase that generate NADPH
        
        Water is broken down
        
        There is a strong difference between the concentration of protons inside the thylakoid lumen and exterior the storm quickly becomes powerful
        
        protons begin to flow out of the lumen through special channels in the membrane
        
        these channels are complex sets of enzymes that can synthesis ATP from ADP and phosphate
- - - - carbon count up to 6
        
        two new molecules created, 3-phosophoglycerate, each contain 3 carbons
        
        the enzyme that carries out this reaction is called RuBP carboxylase
        
        one of the largest and most complex enzymes known, a giant complex of two kinds of protein subunits
        
        first step of storma reactions is carboxylation only
        
        electrons and energy are added in the next two steps
        
        ATP donates a high energy phosphate group to the 3-phosphoglycerate
        
        1 more item...
- - - - two important pathways
        
        the synthetic pathways of polysaccharides and fats, which are storage forms of energy and carbon
        
        The NADPH and ATP produced by photosynthesis are excellent sources of energy
        
        can only be stored for a short amount of time, cause they are reactive and unstable
  - - - in similar reactions to those of C3 metabolism, part of the PGAL exported to the cytoplasm is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
        
        one molecule of this condenses with one molecule of unconverted 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde to form a sugar( fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
        
        this loses a phosphate to become fructose-6-phosphate, this becomes rearranged converting it to glucose-6-phosphate
- - - - quality
        
        refers to the colors or the wavelengths it contains
      - quantity
        
        refers to the light intensity or brightness, is affected by several factors
      - duration
        
        refers to the number of hours per day the sunlight is available
  - - - good for absorbing carbon dioxide, bad for conserving water
  - - - the small amount of carbon dioxide produced during respiration can be reused photsynthetically
- - - - in Cytosol
      - Anaerobic stops here
      - Aerobic continues in Mitochondria
      - creates pyruvic acid
    - - ATP to ADP
    - - oxygen is present
        
        NADH to NAD+
  - - - then NADH reacts with that forming Ethanol Alcohol
- - - - Calvin cycle and fixed CO2
    - - Take in organic substances
        
        Uses them for ATP generation and Polymer construction
    - - Absorb and use carbon for construction
        
        Use photosynthesis for ATP generation
    - - Use CO2 as main carbon source
        
        oxidize hydrogen, sulfur and iron to create ATP
    - - get energy from oxidizing sulfur compounds
      - take in organic compounds for structural uses
- - - - Often referred to as the Angiospermophyta
      - Most advanced group of plants
      - peak of plant evolution
      - named for having flowers
        
        seperates angiosperms from other clades
      - numerous methods of mutually beneficial relationships
      - Process of double fertilization
  - - - flower is generalized and has all its parts, these are arranged spirally
      - carpels in a superior position
    - - double fertilization
      - developmental plasticity
- - - - one cotyledon on each embryo
      - parallel veins
        
        leaves elongated and strap shaped
      - vascular bundles distributed throughout the stem
        
        not restricted to one ring
      - never have ordinary secondary growth
      - groups or multiple of 3's for flowers
        
        3 carpels, 3 stamens and 3 petals
      - 80-100 million species
    - - two cotyledons
      - reticulate ventilation in leaves
      - vascular bundles occur in only one ring
      - can be woody, herbaceous or succulent
      - flowers in groups of 5's
  - - - free of each other or slightly fused
    - - called tepals
    - - parallel ventilation
        
        become more reduced, simple and without a blade
        
        form more adaptive for submerged lifestyle
  - - - partly or completely submerged
    - - causes lose in stomata
  - - - fused sides called septa
      - dont fuse all the way up to the style
        
        open areas secrete nectar, called septal nectaries
      - broad diversity
        
        onions & chives
        
        orchids
- - - - with respect to the vegetative boys, flowers, chemistry, and ecology
- - - - equal size and vigor
    - - epidermis with cuticle
      - cortex of parenchyma
      - xylem composed of tracheids
      - central cells sporogenous
      - homosporous
      - no separate microspores and megaspores
    - - Rhynia
      - Aglaophyton
      - Lynonphyton
      - Sciadophyton
      - Horneophyton
  - - - solid mass of xylem no pith
    - - protoxylem is located in the center
      - metaxylem on outer edge of xylem
        
        xylem cells are small and narrow
        
        metaxyelm are large and wider
    - - metaxylem in center
      - protoxylem on the edges
    - - pith present in center
      - occurs in ferns and seed plants
  - - - different in 3 ways
        
        sporangia is lateral
        
        sporangia opened transversely
        
        xylem is exarch protostele
- - - - only difference was enations were large up to 4 cm
        
        enations increased enough to be considered leaves
      - contained a single well-developed trace of vascular tissue
  - - - cones or strobili these protect them
    - - having microspores and megaspores
        
        germinated into microgametophytes and megagametophytes
  - - - ground pine or club moss
      - fairly common in forests from tropical region to arctic
      - approximately 200 species
      - homosporous
    - - less common in temperate North America
      - plants are small and often overlooked as moss
      - resurrection plant
        
        curls up and turns brown until re-moistened
      - can be distinguished by a small flap called the ligule
    - - around 60 species
      - small, unusual plants call quillworts
      - grow in wet muddy areas
      - corn-like stems that has roots attached below
      - heteropsporous
      - leafs contain sporangia
- - - - trend of overtopping
        
        unequal branching
        
        one stem more vigorous
    - - single main trunk
  - - - 1: leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
      - 2: enations/microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
      - 3: megaphylls
        
        leaves that evolved from branches and present in all seed plants
    - - megaphyll evolution
  - - - 1: their roots have exarch xylem
      - 2: have megaphylls
      - 3: have a 30-kilobased inversion in the large single-copy region
    - - Monilophytes
      - woody plants (lignophytes)
  - - - that bears both true roots and megaphyllous leaves
    - - leaves a small section of vascular cylinders called a leaf gap
    - - when spores germinate they are small heart shaped or ribbon shaped photosynthetic gametophytes
        
        on lower surface with no vascular tissue or epidermis
  - - - initiated when several surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
        
        resulting in a small multilayered plate of cells
        
        outer cells develop into sporangium wall
        
        inner cells proliferate into sporogenous tissue
        
        results in relatively large sporangium with many spores
    - - initiated when a single surface cell divides periclinally
        
        form a small outward protrusion
        
        undergoes more division
        
        which results in a small set of sporogenous cells and a thin covering of sterile cells
- - - - reproduction is hidden
- - - - winter area
      - summer area
      - migratory routes
      - these are all habitat components
    - - they aren't migratory
        
        portions of plants are
        
        spores
        
        pollen
        
        fruits
        
        seeds
        
        vegetative propagules
    - - they pollinate
      - prey on diseased organisms or predators
    - - aspects of a habitat that definitely affect a plant
    - - nonliving and physical phenomena
        
        climate
        
        critically important to all organisms
        
        has many components itself
        
        temperature
        
        rainfall
        
        relative humidity
        
        winds
        
        tolerance range
        
        between the low and high extremes of an organism
        
        soil
        
        pioneers
        
        first plants who invade new soil
        
        must tolerate harsh conditions
        
        horizon
        
        uppermost and sometimes called the zone of leaching
        
        consists of litter and debris
        
        as this breaks down rainwater washes nutrients downward
        
        absorbed in next layer
        
        B Horizon
        
        zone of deposition
        
        layer underneath horizon
        
        C Horizon
        
        layer under B horizon
        
        composed of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        latitude
        
        contributes many factors to abiotic environment
        
        altitude
        
        disturbances
        
        fires
        
        floods
        
        avalanches
        
        produce a significant radical change in an ecosystem quickly
        
        affects biotic factors directly
    - - living factors
        
        the plant itself
        
        modifies the habitat and is a part of it
        
        habitat modification can be beneficial, detrimental or neutral
        
        other plant species
        
        mutualism
        
        interaction beneficial for both species
        
        competition
        
        when two species do not grow well together
        
        competitive exclusion
        
        whichever species is less adaptive is excluded
        
        niche
        
        a role in an environment
        
        species of animals
        
        commensal relationship
        
        one benefits other is unaffected
        
        predation
        
        when one organism benefits and the other is harmed
        
        herbivores
        
        only eat plants
        
        browsing
        
        eat twigs and leaves
        
        grazing
        
        eating herbs
        
        pathogenic
        
        refers to the relationship between harmful bacterias and fungi
        
        fungi
        
        protists
        
        prokaryotes
- - - - a factor that determines the health of a plant
      - applies to all aspects of the plants interaction with its habitat
      - any factor of the ecosystem can act as the limiting factor
  - - - used whenever there is no obvious or identifiable pattern to position to individuals
      - could be do to many small scale patterns being shown
        
        or one large pattern undetected
    - - when spacing between plants is either too small or too large to see
      - can result from many factors
    - - occurs in orchards and tree plantations
      - all neighbors are evenly spaced from each other
      - allelochemics
        
        release from the plant of chemical inhibit other plants
        
        inhibition is called allelopathy
  - - - the relative proportions of young, middle-aged, and old individuals
    - - the length of time from birth to the birth of its first offspring
    - - the number of offspring produced by an individual that can actually live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions
- - - - soil is rich or poor
        
        tolerance ranges broad or narrow
  - - - autotrophs
      - energy and nutrient supply for food chain
    - - herbivores
      - sometimes called secondary producers
    - - prey on primary consumers
      - omnivores exist at both trophic levels
    - - such as fungi and bacteria that break down remains of all types of organisms
- - - - decreases existing alleles frequency
      - new alleles increase
      - significance depends on population size
    - - events to which an organism can not adapt
    - - process where human purposefully alter the allele frequency of a gene pool
      - selective breeding
        
        of crops and domestic animals
      - used to produce ornamental plants and flowers for a longer time
    - - most significant factor causing gene pool changes
      - most adaptive survive
      - Two conditions met before natural selection can occur
        
        population must produce more offspring than can possibly grow and survive
        
        progeny must differ from each other in their type of alleles
      - differential survival can occur
      - factors not apart of natural selection
        
        purpose
        
        intention planning
        
        voluntary decision making
- - - - when one species gradually become so changed that is considered a new species
    - - when some populations of a species evolve into a new second species
      - while other populations either continued unchanged as original or evolve into 3rd species
  - - - movement of alleles physically through space
      - occurs in many ways
        
        pollen transfer
        
        carry one full haploid genome
        
        all alleles are present in pollen grains
        
        seed dispersal
        
        long distance dispersal method
        
        if a seed is overlooked
        
        alleles are transferred
        
        as the seed germinates
        
        grows as a new plant and reproduces
        
        1 more item...
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        asexual reproduction
        
        which multicellular structures become detached from the parent plant
        
        new individuals that are genetically identical to the parent plant
- - - - process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species
        
        in same geographic region
  - - - original species os physically divided into 2 or more populations
        
        can't interbreed
  - - - all offspring greatly resemble
        
        first gene pool is extremely small
- - - - hydrogen is such a light gas, most of this first atmosphere was lost in space
        
        replaced by second atmosphere
    - - early second atmosphere
        
        due to lack of molecular oxygen and presence of powerful reducing agents
  - - - because of lack of free molecular oxygen
- - - - turned into sieve elements
  - - - any force acting on one molecule acts on another
    - - molecules interacting with other substances
  - - - the water is held in the stem and leaf by the cohesion of water molecules to each other
        
        the adhesion of water to the cell walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids
- - - - water potential increases
      - pressure potential increases
    - - pressure potential is negative
- - - - alter their turgidity, and hence the cell shape
    - - which adjusts water potential and turgidity
  - - - at hydraulic equilibrium with surrounding cells
      - water enters and leaves cell at same rate
        
        no net change
    - - potassium ions are transported into guard cells
        
        loss of potassium cause water potential to be negative
        
        absorption of potassium causes it to be increasingly negative
- - - - allows all molecules to move through
      - no biological significance
    - - doesn't allow anything through
      - isolation barriers
    - - allow only certain substances to move through
      - lipids & proteins are differentially permeable
      - hydrophobic molecules can pass through any
      - hydrophilic can cross differentially
        
        only with special protein channels
        
        known as aquaporins
  - - - use ATP to force molecules across membrane
        
        even if it's highly concentrated on receiving side
        
        this is Active Transport
      - this is a protein
        
        binds to molecule and ATP
        
        ATP splits into ADP and phosphate
        
        energy transferred to pump
    - - vesicle migrates through cytoplasm
        
        fuses with another organelle
- - - - region of nonmoving air
  - - - many crypts
        
        where epidermis is deep in the leaf
  - - - exposure to intercellular surfaces
      - upper surface
      - main photosynthetic tissue
      - one layer thick
    - - CO2 diffusion is fast
      - lower portion
      - open lose aerenchyma
      - is either located in the center or is lacking of all together
  - - - lateral veins emerge
        
        move to minor veins
        
        responsible for the release of H2O
        
        H2O from xylem sugars from phloem
      - evolved in conduction
- - - - eudicots
        
        reticular venation
        
        process is in the netted pattern
      - monocots
        
        parallel venation
        
        run side by side
  - - - the carbohydrates are converted via light
    - - compound or simple
        
        simple
        
        blade is one part
        
        compound
        
        the small blades are called leaflets
        
        tough
        
        the blade is divided into many parts
      - light harvesting portion
      - lamina
      - dorsal surface
      - large veins protrude like a backbone
      - lower side of the blade
        
        upper side
        
        adaxial
        
        smooth to touch
      - ventral surface
        
        petiole
        
        Salk
        
        holds out blade to the light
        
        prevents shading
        
        flexible for wind blowing
        
        keep insects off
      - sessile leaf
        
        no petioles
        
        small/ very long/ narrow
      - sheathing of blade leaf
        
        leaf wraps around the base
        
        can flex and flutter
- - - - cause that side to stop growing
      - other side grows
      - plant begins to coil
- - - - basil expansion
        
        protaoxylem
        
        protophloem
        
        stretched and disrupted by Basil meristem
- - - - exhibits plasticity
    - - long and flexible
    - - or bands next to vascular bundles
    - - more glucose for production
  - - - numerous chloroplasts
    - - secrete nectar, fragrances and oils
    - - another parenchyma cell
        
        mediate short distance transport
  - - - the walls are elastic
    - - Trachieds & Vessel elements
    - - Sclerids & Fibers
- - - - alternate
        
        leaves one per node
      - Opposite
        
        leaves two per node
      - decussate
        
        leaves located in four rows
      - Whorled
        
        three or more leaves per node
      - spiral
        
        leaves not aligned
      - distichous
        
        leaves located in two rows only
  - - - fleshy horizontal stems
        
        allow to spread underground
    - - horizontal like Rhizomes
        
        grow for short time period
        
        store nutrients
- - - - a fatty substance that makes wall impermeable
        
        builds up as a more or less pure layer called the cuticle
    - - with a stomatal pore between them
        
        these two form a stoma
  - - - Xylem
        
        conducts water and minerals
      - Phloem
        
        distributes minerals and sugars
  - - - small amount of secondary wall organized in rings
    - - the secondary wall exists as one to three helices
    - - provides strength to the secondary wall
    - - the secondary wall is deposited in the shape of a net
  - - - long and narrow
      - ends pointed
      - sleve areas are small and located all over
      - albuminous cells
      - all non angiosperm vascular plants
    - - short and wide
      - ends usually flat
      - sleve areas are on side walls small
        
        sleve areas on end walls large
      - companion cells
      - angiosperms only
- - - - dehydration synthesis
        
        Taking away 1 Oxygen and 2 Hydrogen
  - - - Same process as Glucose to Amylose
- - - - Which forms Cell Wall
      - These don't bond together
      - Cell Wall made of just cellulose would be weak
      - Hemicelluloses and Pectin bind with microfibrils
      - Plasmodesmata
        
        Create fine holes in Cell Wall
        
        Contain plasma membrane , liquid and a tubule
        
        Transports nutrients from cell to cell
- - - - become more relevant when the plant is older
  - - - protects the growing tip
    - - lubricates passage of root
    - - where cells undergo division and expansion
    - - where epidermal cells extend
    - - form in part not elongating
- - - - develop dense starch grains
  - - - increases absorption of water
    - - no boundary cells
    - - control minerals that pass through
    - - between vascular tissues and endodermis
      - lateral roots produced here
  - - - called also transfusion cell
      - often opposite the protoxylem strands
      - represent passage for minerals
    - - powerful absorption of watering water pressure