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Course Mind Map (Chapter 4 (Division Phase of the Cell cycle (Anaphase…

- - - - some cells can live for up to 100 years
        
        Three phases within interphase: G1, S, G2
        
        S Phase
        
        the genes in the nucleus are replicated and each gene has different nucleotides
        
        the entire complex of genes for an organism is its genomes
        
        thousands of genes attached in a linear sequence the entire structure is a chromosome
        
        centromeres are capped by telomeres
        
        half of the doubled chromosome a chromatid
        
        endoreplication where many rounds of DNA occur
        
        Gene amplification is sims;ar to endpreuplication but only some genes are repeatedly replicated
        
        histones provide protection and structure
        
        G1 (Gap 1)
        
        cell recovering from division and conducting most of its normal metabolism.
        
        synthesis of nucleotides used for the next round of DNA replication
        
        Typically this is the longest Part of the Cell cycle
        
        G2 Phase
        
        during which cells prepare for division
        
        lasts only 3-5 hours
        
        the alpha and beta tubules necessary for spindle microtubules are synthesized
  - - - Metaphase plate
        
        no distinct boundary between prophase and metaphase
        
        chromosomes gradually become more visable and move to metaphase plate
        
        enzyme separate digests cohesin
    - - begins after cohesin releases the centromeres
      - frees kinetochore faces from each other
      - spindles shorten
      - takes 20 ATP molecules to move a chromosome from plate to to end of spindle
    - - Duplication division
        
        more common type of karyokinesis
        
        each daughter nucleus is basically a duplicate of the other
      - Prophase
        
        chromosomes condense
        
        nucleus becomes less distinct and usually completely disappears by the end of this phase
        
        protein frame work develops to which DNA binds
        
        Daughter cells migrate to opposite poles
    - - division of the cytoplasm called cytokinesis
    - - reversal of events from prophase
        
        complete nuclear envelopes form
        
        last stage
  - - - Less common division in plants
        
        algae: coenocytes
        
        nuclei identical to animals
        
        cytokinesis
        
        plasma membrane pinches in two
        
        phycoplast
        
        in Green algae, nuclear envelop doesn't break down
  - - - only one cell is allowed to divide
      - one continues to divide but the other undergoes cell cycle arrest and begins to develop differentiate and mature.
      - after round once of cell division there is one dividing cell and one dividing cell
        
        after round two there are two body cells
        
        then etc etc round three round four etc
    - - geometric increase
  - - - sex cell called a gamate
        
        When two gametes fuse together it is called zygote
        
        organisms with one set of chromosomes are haploid
        
        zygotes are typically diploid
      - two processes meiosis I and meiosis II
        
        Metaphase 1, anaphase 1,
        
        telophase 1
  - - - each new cell must contain a mitochondria
      - each daughter must contain at least one plastid
- - - - plants turn unusable light energy into chemical energy
      - energized pigments can only be entered onto two chemical reactions
        
        energized pigments are very large molecules which makes them harder to work with, not very mobile
        
        First: pigments are allowed to enter each and every reaction that takes place
        
        Second: Take the energized pigments and break them down in order to move them easily #
        
        Doing this allows several things:
        
        uses the light energy, called photophosphorylation
        
        ATP production which is then converted into ADP
        
        Different types of phosphorylation:
        
        substrate-level phosphorlation: fungi, animals, nonchlorophyllous
        
        oxidative phosphorylation: chloroplast
    - - Once reduced electrons are added to the atom
      - If oxidized, the atom won't carry as many electrons
      - Oxidation reactions increase positive charges
      - in a reduction reaction, positive charges are reduced
    - - plastocyanin
        
        small protein, carries electron on the metal atoms
        
        can only move short distances within the chloroplast
      - plastoquiones
        
        hydrocarbon tail=hydrophobic
        
        it transports e- over short distances
        
        picks up two e- to bind to 2 protons
      - cytochrome
        
        carries electrons only between sites that are close together
        
        integral part of chloroplasts thylakoid membrane
        
        cofactors, a heme which holds iron atoms
  - - - light energy into chemical energy #
      - The ideal color for photosynthesis would be black
    - - Light-dependent reactions
        
        Light released by pigments
        
        pigment absorption spectrum, absorption in different wave lengths more prominent
        
        quanta
        
        action spectrum
        
        photons
      - Electromagnetic radiations spectrum of gamma rays
    - - VERY STABLE, even though there is little chemical energy
    - - red light absorbed
      - ferredoxin
        
        a small protein
        
        ferredoxin-NADP reductase, an enzyme, that reduces NADP
      - Photosystem 2
        
        produces NADPH
        
        losing electrons
    - - ATP and NADPH interact with co2
    - - a light dependent reaction
        
        the reducing agent of NADPH
        
        electrons onto carbon of CO2, and stoma reactions are endothermic
  - - - filled with chlorophyl which absorbs mostly red and blue but it is bad at absorbing green. Green light bounces off and this is why leaves appear to be green
      - Plants source of respiration
      - Structure of leaves varies from plant to plant
        
        temperate and tropical plants
        
        These plants have leaves that: prevent water loss, increased absorption, and they have tight intercellular spaces
    - - plants might have spines or hairs that shade the plant, or if the light is too dim plants won't grow
      - Light factors for photosynthesizing organisms
        
        Duration
        
        Hours per day that sunlight is present
        
        quality
        
        the wavelength and colors
        
        Light intensity #
    - - C4 metabolism
        
        Photorespiration
        
        energy wasting, breaks down phosphoglycolate
        
        RuBp
        
        Enzyme that picks up O2, uses 30% of ATP and NADPH
        
        Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
        
        CO2 is too small, not efficient, conservation improves
        
        PEP
        
        Enzyme with an affinity for CO2
        
        H2O lost per molecule of Co2, Co2 diffuses into leaf
- - - - Glycerol is changed into one of the intermediate products of glycolysis, so enters the cell respiration pathway. Fatty acids are changed in a series of reactions called beta-oxidation into acetyl CoA molecules, which enter cell metabolism at the Kreb's Cycle.
        
        https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yufei_Liu/publication/235895281/figure/fig1/AS:201529303801871@1425059738755/Schematic-showing-the-major-reactive-oxygen-species-associated-with-cellular-respiration.png
        
        Here's a link bc pic is bad
    - - Only occurs when RuBP Carboxlase adds oxygen rather than carbon dioxide to ribsose-1,5-bipihosphate resulting in one molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate and one phosphoglycolate
      - Produces amino acids
      - Wastes about 30% of energy trapped by photosynthesis
    - - phosphorlyated five-carbon sugars (pentoses)
        
        KHAN ACADEMY https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/a/pentose-phosphate-pathway
    - - During the citric acid cycle, glycolysis, and the mitochondrial electron transport small amounts of energy are lost as heat. # #
        
        Some plants also generate heat
        
        Plants that generate heat are:Voodoo Lily, and Skunk Cabbage
        
        Skunk cabbage: Actually can melt snow and this helps reveal itself to pollinators
        
        Symplocarpus foetidus scientific name for Skunk Cabbage
        
        Voodoo Lily has inflorescence parts which causes it to become much warmer than the surrounding air causing amines and other chemicals to vaporize and diffuse as attractants for pollinators
        
        Amorphophallus konjac scientific name for Voodoo Lily
    - - Respiration that requires O2 as the terminal electron acceptor
        
        O2 is abundant in most situations and the product of reduction is water
      - Animals and plants are obligate/strict aerobes,
      - Lithotrophic Autotrophs
        
        use CO2 as their primary carbon source
        
        Lithotrophic heterotrophs: get energy by oxidizing sulfur compounds
      - Glycolysis
        
        produces ATP and NADH, but when O2 is present the NADH migrates to electron carriers that oxidize it to NAD+ allowing glycolysis to continue
        
        NADH Shuttle
        
        NADH produced by glycolysis cannot cross the mitochondrial inner membrane and donate electrons directly to the electron transport chain because the inner membrane is impermeable to such large molecules.
        
        SO a series of chemical reactions shuttles reducing power across the membrane
      - The citric acid cycle
        
        Also known as the Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid cycle
        
        Carbon dioxide and acetyl are made
        
        Benefit is to make more ATP
        
        citric acid cycle](https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwit2KLSjpLdAhUHQq0KHRjvAsoQFjACegQICBAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fscience%2Fbiology%2Fcellular-respiration-and-fermentation%2Fpyruvate-oxidation-and-the-citric-acid-cycle%2Fa%2Fthe-citric-acid-cycle&usg=AOvVaw0fGZac2fxk_IYrk4iM1H-u)
    - - When O2 is not available and an alternative electron acceptor must be used.
        
        Also known as Fermentation
        
        Glucose is broken down by a metabolic pathway called glycolysis or the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway
        
        ATP phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, which is then converted to fructose-1,6-biphosphate, which breaks down into3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
      - obligate anaerobes, facultatively anaerobic
      - 1,3-diphosphoglycerate is energetic enough that an enzyme can transfer one of its phosphate groups onto an ADP, converting it to ATP and changing the 1,3-diphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate . A PROCESS CALLED SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
      - Pyruvate and NADH react to form lactate which is the anion of lactic acid.
        
        In plants and fungi, pyruvate is first converted to acetaldehyde
        
        NADH reacts with that forming ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
      - Inefficent #
    - - Carbo is Oxidized. It's oxidized state goes from 0+ to 4+ as electrons are removed by NAD+, which is then converted into NADP.
        
        This process is opposite of photosynthesis, in which NADPH carries electrons to carbon, reducing it
      - The NADH generated by respiration is a good reducing agent but it is produced in too big of quantities for constructive purposes.
      - Plants use mostly NADPH from photosynthesis for their reductions, not NADH
  - - - NADH diffuses to membrane and passes electrons to a portion that has flavin mononucleotide bound to a cofactor
        
        KHAN ACADEMY (https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=13&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjz066Oj5LdAhUBS60KHQ7eBIAQFjAMegQICBAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fscience%2Fbiology%2Fcellular-respiration-and-fermentation%2Foxidative-phosphorylation%2Fa%2Foxidative-phosphorylation-etc&usg=AOvVaw0eqn487xWRHC_LckhIwbFW)
  - - - Drinks that have an alcohol percentage above 20%
      - solution becomes toxic to the yeast and they die
      - ethanol must always be added to the solution to be distilled
        
        the solution is heated which causes the alcohol to evaporate along with water and flavor profiles
        
        Ethanol boils are 78 degrees celsius
      - Distillation can only raise the alcohol content to 191 proof which is 95.6%
      - Grain based: vodka, whiskey, Gin
      - 80% corn abd rye and wheat may also be added
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjwsrWJnZLdAhVCX60KHVikD-oQFjALegQIBxAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.socialhourcocktails.com%2Fspiritsproduction101&usg=AOvVaw2IC1q9nqj5qJdKnkU_6NRx
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=14&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjwsrWJnZLdAhVCX60KHVikD-oQFjANegQIDBAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fhomebrewacademy.com%2Fhow-spirits-and-liquors-are-made%2F&usg=AOvVaw0OHkQhgug9tsh5rWoiRIDt
    - - Yeast cells (Saccharomyces) ferment the glucose present in grapes and excrete the waste product ethanol #
        
        Naturally fermented wine has a max alcohol content of 14% at this point the yeast is killed
      - Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, which give the wine its color.
      - White wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice; the skins are removed and play no further role.
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=13&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiEx-S5m5LdAhVpmK0KHSB5CvYQFjAMegQIAxAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwinefolly.com%2Freview%2Fhow-wine-is-made-in-pictures%2F&usg=AOvVaw2tsGkqPY6hGSz_cbNG_DF7
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=17&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiEx-S5m5LdAhVpmK0KHSB5CvYQwqsBMBB6BAgCEAo&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DiEegNyWLOlE&usg=AOvVaw3a_DE8s0r2ZJRs2kSBDbDP
    - - Beer has 5.5% not because its yeast is more sensitive to the ethanol but because it is the legal limit.
      - Made by fermenting starchy cereal grains such as barely wheat corn or rice
      - barely beer is the most common
        
        Barly has the greatest number of enzymes and converts starch to sugar more rapidly
      - part of the starch must be removed from the wheat before fermentation can occur
      - Corn syrup or potatoes are added because they are cheap resources for adding starch to the beer
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi1k9_smpLdAhVCLKwKHTyIAKQQFjALegQICxAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.beeriety.com%2F2009%2F07%2F06%2Fhow-beer-is-made%2F&usg=AOvVaw27wuw6lob3rMcYGr7ca30w
      - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=14&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi1k9_smpLdAhVCLKwKHTyIAKQQwqsBMA16BAgCEAc&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DXtfnKwSUvbA&usg=AOvVaw0o5KygWpL0Kqeno8d_fTAM
    - - Alcoholic beverages with alcohol contents higher than 14% have extra alcohol added or part of their water removed
    - - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj5_K_dnZLdAhVS-6wKHRUkB34QFjAAegQIABAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelshouse.com%2Falcohol-treatment%2Fwhy-is-alcohol-called-a-depressant%2F&usg=AOvVaw37D_ymgTgxYdjdrGMZtPlW
  - - - Greatly influences respiration in a plant #
      - Increase in temperature of 10 degrees in the range of 5-25 degrees Celsius doubles the respiration rate
    - - Respiration is the source of ATP for all parts of a cell other than chloroplast #
      - All cells have different metabolic needs and functions
    - - Not as active as animals
      - Oxygen concentrations causes variations in a cells access to oxygen
      - oxygen variability is higher in roots in well-drained soil
        
        After rainfall oxygen is displaced by water (hypoxia) or there is no oxygen called (anoxia)
  - - - Glycolysis:It provides 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH + 2H+.
      - Pyruvate Oxidation: It yields 2 NADH + 2H+ only.
      - Krebs Cycle: It gives 2 GTP molecules, 6 NADH+ 6H+ and 2 FADH2. Generally no distinction is made between ATP and GTP because GTP is changed into as ATP in the cytoplasm by an enzyme nucleoside di-phosphate kinase. #
      - ETS: It produces 32 or 34 ATP molecules, and is the major source of energy for a cell.
- - - - transformation hypothesis
        
        postulates that after the dibiontic life cycle originated both gametophyte and sporophyte became larger more complex and vascualized
- - - - homosporous there were no separate microspores and megaspores
- - - - protaoxylem with no pith this is a located in the center and metaxylem differentiates on the outer edge of the xylem mass
      - protaoxylem is the xylem that differentiates while cells are small and narrow and
      - metaxylem differentiates after the cells have expanded for a few more days, and are larger
      - exarch protostele
        
        present in early vascular plants
      - siphonostele
        
        pith is present in the center as occurs in the stems of ferns and
- - - - large enations 4 cm long
      - single well developed trace of vascular tissue
      - long enations helped with photosynthesis
        
        could be called leaves
    - - also called lycophyta
      - true roots that allowed lycophyte sporophytes to anchor firmly absorb efficiently and thus to grow to tremendous size
- - - - approximately 200 living species with prostrate rhizomes that have true roots and short upright branches
        
        spores germinate and grow into bisexual gametophytes that produce both antheridia and archegonia
      - selaginella is less common in temperate north america and its plants are smaller and easily overlooked or mistaken to be mosses
        
        best known species is the resurrection plant
      - selaginellas can be distinguished from lycopodiums by a small flap of tissue the ligule
      - stylites are similar to isoetes
- - - - single main trunk rather than a series od dichotomies
- - - - on short axis
      - this is compared to sporophylls
      - axillary bud
        
        microscopic
        
        megasporophylls are fused laterally forming
        
        ovuliferous scale
    - - a zygote does not immediately form from an embryo in conifers: instead ....
        
        some of the cells elongate as a suspensor that pushes the other cells deep into the megagametophyte
        
        these other cells called the pro embryo develop into the embryo
        
        no doubly fertilization as occurs in angiosperms rather the female gametophyte continues to grow and acts a haploid nutritive tissue similar to endosperm
- - - - developed megaphyllous leaves
      - evolution of vascular cambian
    - - wood was almost indistinguishable from that of many living conifers
      - contained elongated tracheas most with circular bordered pits
      - little or no axial parenchyma
      - rays were all and univariate and consisted of procumbent ray tracheids
- - - - cycadophyta-cycads, extant
      - Pteridospermophyta; seed ferns all extinct
        
        upper Devonian period
        
        form a grade rather than a clade
        
        any woody plant with fern-like foliage that bore seeds instead of sori (clusters of sporangia) on its leaves
        
        resembles modern tree ferns , except they had wood and others were vines
        
        long lived vascular cambium
        
        ring of vascular bundles surrounding a pith an arrangement that also occurs
        
        seed ferns were manoxylic much softer and less dense than wood conifers and progymnosperms
      - Cycadeoidophyta; cycadeoids all extinct
- - - - megagametes
    - - microgametes
    - - gametes fussing with other gametes
- - - - androecium
  - - - stigma
      - style
      - ovary
- - - - called an embryo sac
- - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
      - in one compatibility system as a pollen tube grows the stigma and style test proteins on the tubes surface
      - Monocious and Dioecious Species
        
        the latter two organs are essential organs because they produce the critical important spores if either organ is absent sexual reproduction dramatically affected
        
        Flowers that either lack or both essential organs are not only incomplete but are also imperfect flowers
        
        if a flower has both it is a perfect flower
        
        a species may have individuals that produce only staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
        
        dioecy and the species is called dioecious
        
        Monoecy is condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
        
        monoecious species include cattails and corn
- - - - limited potential growth bc the inflorescence apex is converted into a flower
    - - the lowest or outermost flowers open first and even while these flowers are open new flowers are being initiated at the apex
- - - - these are usually fleshy fruits
      - animals chew or digests the fruits, opening it if uneaten the fruit rots and liberates the seeds
- - - - tied with community
      - adds to nonliving environment
- - - - preventing forest fires impacted the growth of these trees
  - - - climate, soil, latitude, altitude, and disturbances
  - - - the plant itself, other plant species and species of animals , fungi, protists, and prokaryotes
- - - - temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and winds
    - - the high and low extremes
  - - - the first plants that invade a new soil
      - these plants must endure harsh conditions
      - the soil is usually sandy with large rock particles
      - little water holding conditions in these soils
      - many minerals are locked in the rock matrix
      - associated with nitrogen fixing prokaryotes
        
        cyanobacteria and angiosperms with root nodules
      - roots reach through to bedrock breaking down soil
    - - thick soil with distinct soil profile with three layers
      - (A) horizon is the uppermost and is sometimes called the zone of leaching contains litter and debris
        
        (B) Horizon zone of deposition
        
        B is where materials from A horizon accumulate it is rich in nutrients and contains both humus and clay
        
        (c) horizon composed of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        water washes rain water into layer B
  - - - no seasonal variation
      - plants cannot measure season by photoperiod
    - - summer days are longer and so are winter nights
    - - mid-summer days are 24 hours long same with nights
    - - some species are sensitive to photoperiod
  - - - lightning storms occur often without rainfall
      - plants and debris accumulate and then lightning strikes burning them clearing debris
        
        plants have become fire resistant
        
        some pine trees have a thick flame resistant bark, and the flames cannot hurt the vascular cambian
        
        lower portions of trunk have no branches due to self pruning and then flames cannot reach them
        
        this causes only small plants to be burned
- - - - aka beech and oak trees with a thick canopy
    - - only disturbances can create open habitats needed for seedling pines #
    - - the soil is poor with no humus and few nutrients
        
        pioneer species such as alder willow and fireweed colonize these exposed morines #
  - - - interaction that is beneficial
    - - interaction among species that is disadvantageous
      - two populations that do not grow together
      - many plants compete with each other for light, soil, nutrients, water and attention of pollinators and seed dispersers
      - roots might grow and compete with other root systems
    - - whichever species is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem
    - - before divergent speciation
      - transplant experiments
        
        these test ecotypes and if they exist
        
        plants from a site are transplanted to an alternate site and then plants are grown together in a:
        
        common garden
  - - - seed dispersal by fruit eating animals
      - benefits species as long as animal doesn't chew seeds and digest embryos
    - - acacias are small trees with enlarged hollow throne at their leaf base
      - thorns are used as ready made homes for ants
      - acacias also produce nectar and their leaflet tips are modified into golden yellow food bodies
    - - one species benefits and the other is unaffected
    - - one species benefits and the other is unaffected
    - - plant eaters
      - browsing and grazing
- - - - most habitat components act on the plant simultaneously most are considered to be important at any given time and locality one factor alone determines the health of a plant
      - the concept of limiting factors applies to all aspects of a plants interaction with its habitat
  - - - clumped
      - not uniform
      - no obvious identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
    - - those in which the spacing between plants is either small or large but rarely average
      - seeds of a plant fall near plant, not in random places
      - if a bird eats fruit it will deposit the seeds in a clumped area
    - - types that occur in orchards and tree plantations all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
      - not common in the wild
    - - chemicals released from plants to deter other plants
      - the inhibition of other plants is called allelopathy
- - - - the length of time from the birth of one individual until the birth of its first offspring
    - - biotic potential
        
        number of offspring produced by an individual that actually live long enough to reproduce under normal conditions
- - - - typically are annuals or small shrubbery
  - - - douglas firs, bristle-cone pines
        
        face intense competition from other plant species and therefor adaptions that increase the ability to use scare resources are beneficial
- - - - criterion for the classification was the means by which the plant survives stressful seasons such as by placing buds below ground
- - - - extracted vinblastine and vincristine
      - two important anticancer drugs
- - - - they have no transportation and thus mutations that result in the loss of stomata are not selectively disadvantageous
      - do not waster carbon and energy by producing fibers that are not needed for support
      - In most alismatales flowers are large and showy
  - - - carpels fuse side by side starting at their bases the fused sides being called septa
      - they do not fuse all the way up to the style however and the open areas secrete nectar these are septal nectaries
      - extremely diverse in morphology
- - - - once thought to be basal angiosperms
      - contains many staminate flowers
- - - - the plants are loose and more open
  - - - conducts water and dissolved minerals
      - elongated cells that lose their cytoplasm when matured
        
        each hydroid has leptoids
        
        resembles sieve cells
    - - small multicellular trichome-like structures that penetrate the substrate
      - only anchor the stem
      - lack chloroplasts and have red walls
  - - - resembles filamentous algae
      - number of chloroplasts in each cells distinguishes it
  - - - short stalk surrounded by sterile cells
- - - - Hepatophyta
    - - bryophyta
    - - anthocerotophyta #
- - - - opening the sporangium when the air is dry and bending inward when humid
- - - - nonvascular plants are called bryophytes #
      - these plants arose first
    - - vascular cryptogams
    - - spermatophytes
- - - - leafy liverworts
      - thallose liverworts
    - - two rows are Larger than the third
    - - the body is referred to as a thallus
        
        a body without roots, stems, and leaves
      - the cells are loosely arranged as an aerenchyma with large air chambers that open to the exterior by means of large air pores
  - - - the underside has numerous archegonia
- - - - called the radicle
        
        radical was present in the seed after germination it grows extensively and usually becomes the largest root in the system
        
        tap root
        
        carrots
        
        becomes swollen and larger than lateral roots
        
        Sunflower taproots are the same size as lateral ones
        
        fibers root system
        
        winter wheat consists of many roots none of which is the radicle instead all main roots that originated in stem tissue
        
        corn has a fibrous root system and the radicle died shortly after germination and no root connects
        
        RADISHES ARE OBVIOUSLY TAP ROOTS
  - - - root is embedded in a solid matrix it is impossible for all parts to extend at once the entire root would have to slide through the soil
      - growth comes from apical meristems
    - - this is essential to the growth of the plant because even seemingly soft soils are very damaging and made up of the same general materials
    - - where cells undergo division and expansion
- - - - or this is a layer of fat
  - - - cells that only contain casparian strips
      - once thought torepresent passageways for the absorption of minerals
      - now suspected that they are just slow to develop
    - - continued endodermis maturation is the formation of a watertight sheath around the vascular tissues
      - in older parts of this root it functions to keep water in #
- - - - upper side grows more rapidly than other parts of the root
  - - - acts as a waterproof barrier
  - - - a bacterium then attaches ti the convex side of the hair and pushes into the cell by means of a tubelike invagination of the plant cell wall
        
        this is called an infection thread
        
        can extend all the way to roots inner cortex
        
        inner cortex is where cells undergo mitosis
        
        the bacterium then enters the cytoplasm where it begins to proliferate rapidly landfills the plant with bacteroids
        
        bacteriods are capable of converting N2 into compounds that are released to the plant cells
        
        this process supplies cigars from the legume root cells
  - - - very little root like structure remains
      - parasitism has evolved several times thus the structures are termed haustoria bc not ask are related ti each other and generalizations are difficult
      - must attach to their host by secreting an adhesive or growing around small branch or root
      - penetration occurs through the hosts dermal system or by expanding the haustorium radially cracking the hosts epidermis
  - - - deposit the seeds on other trees
    - - fig grows rapidly downward
        
        for several months or years the roots have no soil contact
        
        once the roots hit the soil it begins to branch
        
        upper portions of the fig become woody
        
        strangler fig roots grow at various angles and the roots fuse to each other wherever they meet
- - - - many are man made
  - - - foreign DNA is present after cutting, which is incorporated into chromosomal DNA by DNA ligase
- - - - process in genetics by which the two chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange equal segments with each other.
      - Crossing over occurs in the first division of meiosis
      - At that stage each chromosome has replicated into two strands called sister chromatids.
- - - - which doesn't fully represent one cross
      - gametes are organized
      - good for representing a relative number in nature
  - - - the trait shown
- - - - offspring identical to parent and each sibling
      - same DNA
      - same alleles
    - - combined alleles
      - better adapted individuals
      - increases the copy of their own DNA
    - - plant with poor capacity
        
        dies
      - plants with superior H20 stress resistance
- - - - primers
        
        polymerized ribonucleotides
        
        adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or uracil (U).
        
        A primer is a short single strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis.
        
        required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.
      - A nucleotide that contains ribose as its sugar and is a component of RNA.
  - - - DNA helix uncoils and separates
      - the new pieces of DNA are ligated and attached via covalent bonds
  - - - the RNA's are depolarized
- - - - process in genetics by which the two chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange equal segments with each other.
      - Crossing over occurs in the first division of meiosis
      - At that stage each chromosome has replicated into two strands called sister chromatids.
- - - - primers
        
        polymerized ribonucleotides
        
        adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or uracil (U).
        
        A primer is a short single strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis.
        
        required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.
      - A nucleotide that contains ribose as its sugar and is a component of RNA.
  - - - DNA helix uncoils and separates
      - the new pieces of DNA are ligated and attached via covalent bonds
  - - - the RNA's are depolarized
- - - - offspring identical to parent and each sibling
      - same DNA
      - same alleles
    - - combined alleles
      - better adapted individuals
      - increases the copy of their own DNA
    - - plant with poor capacity
        
        dies
      - plants with superior H20 stress resistance
- - - - many are man made
  - - - foreign DNA is present after cutting, which is incorporated into chromosomal DNA by DNA ligase
- - - - which doesn't fully represent one cross
      - gametes are organized
      - good for representing a relative number in nature
  - - - the trait shown
- - - - vegetative bud or floral bud
        
        covered in bud scales that are cocky and waxy used for protection
  - - - stolons make new plants after finding a suitable microhabitat
  - - - horizontal like rhizomes but grow for only a short period and are mainly used for storing nutrients
      - bulky underground plant organ
- - - - Cutin makes walls impermeable to water
        
        Cuticle
    - - make it hard for animals to eat them
  - - - Xylem conducts water and minerals
      - Phloem distributes sugars and minerals
        
        phloem cells are living
  - - - tracheary element refers to either cell
        
        must enter cell cycle arrest first
    - - scalariform thickening provides much more strength
  - - - sieve element refers to either
      - Parenchyma cells
      - plasmodesmata occur in group called sieve pores
      - remain alive during differentiation
      - large sieve areas stacked end to end are called sieve tubes
        
        shorter than the plant and the small lateral sieve tubes are important for transport
      - nuclei degenerate but cells remain alive
      - associated with albuminous cells and controlled by companion cells
- - - - stems are transport and supporting structures
        
        All plants have stems but some are temporary or reduced structures
        
        some stems conserve more water
        
        some plants have shoots
        
        other plants have photosynthetic roots
  - - - Mechanical sclerenchyma are divided into fibers and sclereids
        
        Fibers
        
        long and flexible
        
        wood of flowering plants
        
        example to humans would be ribs
        
        Sclerids
        
        short and less isodiametric
        
        brittle and inflexible
        
        shells of walnuts or coconuts or pits of peaches/cherries
        
        brain in skull example
- - - - blades lower side is called the dorsal surface
        
        upper side is called the ventral surface
  - - - If a leaf doesn't have a petiole it is a sessile leaf
        
        plants that are sessile typically have no problem with photosynthesis and the reason their leaves are so packed together prevents evaporation
    - - foliage leaves tend ti be very ling and tapered and self shading only occurs at the base
        
        typically these plants lack a petiole instead the lead base wraps around the stem to form a sheathing leaf base
        
        the blade can flex and flutter still without a petiole
  - - - some plants have pretorian leaves or several leaf blades called leaflets which are attached by a petioulule
        
        Large compound leaves still only has small leaflets
  - - - more turbulence produces more CO2 intake
        
        turbulence takes away excess heat and can prevent fungus and bugs from spreading
- - - - air borne spores of fungi are landing on leaves. rye leaves have 10,000 fungal spores per sq. centimeter but are on the upper surface where stomata are rare. thus fungi rarely penetrate the leaf
    - - this is beneficial because it protects from sun, and insects, and mammals from eating them
      - also very waxy in some cases which protects against fungi
  - - - main photosynthetic layer of most plants
        
        each cekk has most of its surface exposed to the intercellular spaces.
    - - open loose aerenchyma that permits carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly away from stomata into all parts of the leafs interior
- - - - base of meristem cells just interior to the protoderm grow outward forming a protrusion
        
        grow into a narrow cone very rapidly becoming taller than the shoot apical meristem
        
        as this leaf primordium grows it increases in thickness est. the bulk of the midrib
- - - - when water is under pressure
        
        when low pressure
        
        pressure potential increases
        
        water potential increases
  - - - the pressure potential is negative
    - - waters adhesion to the non dissolved pieces
- - - - intercellular Transport
        
        vesicle migrating through the cytoplasm and fuses with another organelle
    - - ATP splitting into ADP and phosphate
        
        energy transferred to a pump
  - - - doesn't allow anything through
      - there are isolation barriers
    - - allows all molecules through
      - no biological importance in this
    - - hydrophilic=water loving
        
        can cross differently with the help of aquaporins which are special protein channels
      - hydrophobic molecules can pass through these, however only certain substances are allowed to move past
      - lipids and proteins
- - - - adjusts turgidity and water potential
  - - - loss of K+ causes water potential to be negative, and the absorption of potassium causes it to be increasingly negative
- - - - stomata closes then transpiration stops
      - water held in the stem by the cohesion of H2O molecules
      - lots of adhesion of water to xylem vessels along with trachids
  - - - stomata closed transpiration rates decrease
- - - - scale matters
      - larger areas are more diverse than smaller ones
      - a larger area will have more diverse populations than a smaller one
    - - the relationship between are and species richness is
      - expressed by the formula S=cA^2
        
        S is number of species
        
        A is the Area
        
        c and z are constants that must be discovered by studying individual communities
    - - we can plot the number of species in each abundance class
      - species abundance distributions do nit describe most communities accurately
      - high latitudes have lower diversity than equilateral ones
- - - - feeding rate rate refers to how quickly a predator dins a new prey individual and handling time refers to the amount of time needed to consume the prey
        
        make up the predators functional response
        
        feeding rate will be faster If there are more prey individuals available so a predators functional response is dependent on prey density
        
        prey-dependent
    - - the kine indication population stability is called zero growth isocline
  - - - attacking the individual once encountering
      - will the prey be successfully eaten
      - particular prey encountered
    - - competition between species
        
        competing for the same resources
        
        exploration competition
        
        organisms eating the same resources
        
        makes it harder for other organisms
    - - the interaction between choice of prey factors
      - figuring out why herbivores only certain types of plants
    - - there are decreases in the other species
        
        all prey low
        
        then predator count will be low
        
        plants are competing
- - - - both of the organisms benefit
      - pollinators and the plants they pollinate are an example
    - - organism becomes established
      - Newley Created substrates
    - - lava flow and ash fields that are sterile as they cool
      - or glaciers that scrape away substrate
      - need pioneer species like moss and lichens to rebuild
      - or species with slender roots
  - - - seeds are moved in plants
      - animals are captured
      - both are relocated
    - - a low quality patch environment
    - - colonizes more patches
      - florist temporarily
      - survives by colonizing new patches
    - - an ideal, high quality patch
    - - migration also plays a factor
      - connected by gene flow
    - - within a patch you'll have both animals and plants obviously
        
        animals traveling by flying, walking or swimming, this transports seeds or spores from patch to patch
      - global warming #
      - empty patches
        
        no surpluses or spare, or they are unneeded
  - - - one organism helps another without any benefit
      - organism facilitates the presence of another