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Course Mindmap, Populations and Ecosystems (Plants in Relationship to…

- - - - preventing forest fires impacted the growth of these trees
  - - - climate, soil, latitude, altitude, and disturbances
  - - - the plant itself, other plant species and species of animals , fungi, protists, and prokaryotes
- - - - clumped
      - not uniform
      - no obvious identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
    - - those in which the spacing between plants is either small or large but rarely average
      - seeds of a plant fall near plant, not in random places
      - if a bird eats fruit it will deposit the seeds in a clumped area
    - - evenly spaced from their neighbors
      - not common in the wild
    - - chemicals released from plants to deter other plants
      - the inhibition of other plants is called allelopathy
  - - - plant simultaneously
      - applies to all aspects of a plants interaction with its habitat
      - one factor alone determines the health of a plant
- - - - typically are annuals or small shrubbery
  - - - a population is close to its carrying capacity
        
        select for phenotypes very different from those that are beneficial in a disturbed habitat
    - - douglas firs, bristle-cone pines
        
        face intense competition from other plant species
        
        adaptions that increase the ability
        
        to use scare resources are beneficial
- - - - tied with community
      - adds to nonliving environment
- - - - distribution in relation to each other
      - physical environment constitute the physiognomic structure
    - - criterion for the classification
        
        plant survives stressful seasons such as by placing buds below ground
- - - - cyanobacteria and angiosperms with root nodules
  - - - (B) Horizon zone of deposition
        
        materials from A horizon accumulate it is rich in nutrients and contains both humus and clay
        
        (c) horizon composed of parent rock and rock fragments
      - water washes rain water into layer B
- - - - plants have become fire resistant
        
        this causes only small plants to be burned
        
        lower portions of trunk have no branches due to self pruning
        
        some pine trees have a thick flame resistant bark, and the flames cannot hurt the vascular cambian
      - lightning strikes burning them clearing debris
- - - - light, soil, nutrients, water and attention of pollinators and seed dispersers
  - - - these test ecotypes and if they exist
      - plants from a site are transplanted to an alternate site and then plants are grown together in a:
        
        common garden
- - - - leaflet tips are modified into golden yellow food bodie
- - - - grows into gametophytes
- - - - equal sized branch
      - equal size vigor
    - - has epidermis with cuticle
      - context of parenchyma
  - - - opens spores
- - - - help with photosynthesis
      - "leaves"
- - - - herbs with secondary growth
    - - 5-10 groups umbrella shaped
- - - - microgametes
    - - megagametes
    - - gametes fussing with other gametes
- - - - androecium
  - - - stigma
      - style
      - ovary
- - - - called an embryo sac
- - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
      - in one compatibility system as a pollen tube grows the stigma and style test proteins on the tubes surface
      - Monocious and Dioecious Species
        
        the latter two organs are essential organs because they produce the critical important spores if either organ is absent sexual reproduction dramatically affected
        
        Flowers that either lack or both essential organs are not only incomplete but are also imperfect flowers
        
        if a flower has both it is a perfect flower
        
        a species may have individuals that produce only staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
        
        dioecy and the species is called dioecious
        
        Monoecy is condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
        
        monoecious species include cattails and corn
- - - - limited potential growth bc the inflorescence apex is converted into a flower
    - - the lowest or outermost flowers open first and even while these flowers are open new flowers are being initiated at the apex
- - - - these are usually fleshy fruits
      - animals chew or digests the fruits, opening it if uneaten the fruit rots and liberates the seeds
- - - - developed into seeds
- - - - monocot flowers
      - have three stamens and three carpels
      - endocot flowers
        
        have 4/5 of each
- - - - perianth members
      - early fuse together
      - remain free
- - - - coconut
  - - - wheat, barley, oats, rye, etc.
    - - sepals & petals are little importance
      - 3 carpels fused together
      - 3 stigmas remain separate
- - - - abides
      - malvids
      - both contain more than 100 families
      - hard to distinguish between the two
    - - grape family
    - - geranium family
- - - - only one cotyledon
      - parallel veins
        
        leaves are elongated
      - strap shaped
      - vascular bundles
      - arrange in groups of 3
        
        3 sepals, 3 petals, 3 stamens, 3 carpels
    - - more diverse
      - greater number of families
      - two cotyledons
      - reticulate venation in leaves
      - highly modified forms
- - - - may remain free or fused
      - fuse into tube or carpels
    - - changed from basal angiosperm to basal eudiocot
- - - - filled with giant vacuole
    - - absorbs nutrients from stigma
      - grows downward through the style
    - - divides and forms two sperm cells
    - - divides and forms two sperm cells
    - - divides and forms two sperm cells
    - - germinates
      - producing a pollen tube
  - - - are one large central cell
      - two polar nuclei
      - three small antipodal cells
      - egg apparatus cons
        
        two synergids and an egg
  - - - plasmogamy
      - fusion of the protoplastof the gametes and karyogamy
    - - second sperm nucleus released from the pollen tube
      - migrates from the singed into the central cell
    - - both polar nuclei have large endosperm nucleus
      - triploid containing three set of genes
- - - - consisting of radicle, epicotyl, hypocotyl
  - - - funiculus break leaving a scar, the hilum
  - - - expand and mature into the seed coat
- - - - megagametes
    - - microgametes
    - - results in haploid gametes
    - - gametes fussing with other gametes
- - - - lowest or outermost flowers open first
      - while flowers are open new flowers are being initiated at the apex
    - - limited potential growth
        
        apex is converted into a flower
- - - - androecium
  - - - style
      - ovary
      - stigma
    - - small central mass of parenchyma
        
        know as nucleus
- - - - individual parts become self sufficient
      - establishing adventitious roots
    - - ends separate & act as individuals
- - - - chemical relations between pollen & carpels
      - pollen tube grows
        
        stigma & styla test proteins
  - - - produce the critical important spores
      - if organ(s) is absent sexual reproduction is affected
    - - incomplete& imperfect flowers
    - - dioecy and the species
- - - - finds a new prey
    - - the amount of time to consume
    - - feed rate higher
      - with more prey around
      - predators functional rate
        
        prey-dependent
        
        dependent on prey density
  - - - improvs condition for prey
      - leads the predator to overexploit prey
      - both species will be lost
      - loss in species diversity when habitat is improved
  - - - amount of prey can be harvested with effort
- - - - flying, walking, swimming
    - - dispersal of seeds or spores
    - - not surplus or spare or uneeded
    - - important due to global warming
- - - - come into existence then cease
- - - - larger areas are more diverse
    - - types of organisms,
        
        they adapt to aspects of the area
    - - relationship between area & species
      - formula S=cA
  - - - have years to evolve & adapt
- - - - one organism restricts another organism
    - - organisms eat same resources
      - less available for other organisms
  - - - then predators are low
    - - decreases the other species
- - - - plants, algae
    - - herbivore
    - - carnivore
- - - - enhances the reproduction of neighboring species
      - nurse plants
        
        example of facilltions
  - - - volcanos form substrates
        
        lava flow & ash
- - - - tube like closed structure
- - - - stems was protostele
  - - - pith surrounded by primary xylem
    - - were heterosporous
  - - - produced one megaspore
        
        produced one large megaspore
        
        three small aborted cells
      - mother cell
      - surrounded by layer of tissue
        
        integument
        
        projected upward
      - micropyle
        
        hole in integument
        
        allows sperm cells to swim to egg
      - pollen chamber
        
        space at top of megasporangium
        
        microspores settle
- - - - cycads
      - extant
    - - cycadeoids
      - all extinct
    - - seed fern
      - all extinct
  - - - form a grade not clade
    - - manoxylic
      - around stem
        
        pteridosperm thick cortex
        
        distinct radial plates
        
        inner cortex
        
        secretory ducts
    - - large, compound, planar
- - - - located below megasporophylls #
- - - - simple needles or scales
    - - simple
      - one or two veins running dow the center
      - endodermis tissue
        
        transfusion tissue
        
        transfusion parenchyma cell
        
        transfusion tracheids
        
        transfusion parenchyma
        
        intermixed with tracheids
        
        two cell types
        
        form complex 3D pattern
        
        facilitates transfer of material
        
        between ordinary vascular tissue & mesophyll tissue
    - - thin and tall
      - contain ray parenchyma
        
        ray tracheids
    - - produce thick tough bark
      - provides protection from forest fires
    - - tiny papery leaves
      - short shoots
        
        long needle leaves
    - - pollen cones
      - single short branched axis
        
        bears microsporophylls
    - - compound cone
      - shoot with axillary buds
      - cone bracts
        
        short axis leaves
    - - microscopic
      - megasporophylls are fused laterally
        
        ovuliferous scale
- - - - 2 copies of gene
        
        1 on each of the 2 chromatids
  - - - froms a small bubble
  - - - primers
        
        polymerized ribonucleotides
  - - - for DNA- synthesizing enzyme
  - - - RNAs depolymerized
  - - - new pieces are ligated
        
        attached via covalent bonds
- - - - incorporated into chromosomal DNA by DNA ligase
    - - code for enzymes involved in cutting
      - cuts the insertion sequence out putting into DNA somewhere else
  - - - occurs in spacer DNA between two genes
        
        no effects
- - - - complete set of genes
  - - - genotype trait over other version
    - - lesser trait
- - - - size, shape, metabolism
  - - - offspring identical to parent & sibling
      - same DNA
      - same alleles
    - - combine alleles
      - better adapted individuals
        
        increase the copy of their own alleles
    - - plant with poor capacity
        
        dies
      - plant with superior H2O stress resistance
        
        live
- - - - located far from each other
      - during prophase 1
      - homologous chromosomes paired
  - - - genes link instead
  - - - recombination of alleles
- - - - both parents transmitted equally
    - - zygote obtains plastids
      - mitochondrion genomes
  - - - heterozygotes have enough proteins
- - - - multiple layers for protection
      - reproduction modifications
        
        caused grouping & protection
    - - plants shaded other plants
        
        caused a selective mutation
        
        making plant grow taller to be close to light
        
        nonvascular used turgid parychama cells
        
        don't grow very tall #
        
        vascular plants #
        
        strengthening material in xylem
        
        good age conduction water
- - - - always surrounded by several layers of sterile cells
  - - - alteration or heteromorphic generations
    - - provides selective advantage
    - - stone walls, fences, bare rocks
- - - - hornworts
        
        anthocerotae
      - liverworts
        
        hepaticae
      - mosses
        
        music
- - - - ubiquitous
      - in all parts of world
      - thrive with cities
      - all have leaves
      - leaves didn't evolve from vascular stems
    - - grow from apical meristem
        
        contain apical cells
      - organized in 3 rows
      - one cell thick
      - cuticle located in upper part
        
        underside uncutinized
        
        capable of absorbing water
        
        little protection from dry spell
        
        no stomata
  - - - innermost cortex cells
      - conduct water
      - dissolved minerals
      - elongated cells
    - - resemble sieve cells
      - elongated
      - prominent interconnections
      - lack nuclei at maturity
      - retain their cytoplasm
    - - cytoplasmic
      - rich with enzymes
    - - water conducted
        
        along exterior stem
        
        by way of capillary action
    - - base of stem
      - small
      - multicellular
      - penetrate substrate
      - anchor stems
      - no absorption
      - lack chloroplast
  - - - spore germinates
      - undergoes mitosis
      - protonema
        
        entire network
    - - many small chloroplast
      - small cells organize apical cell
      - perennial
        
        grows extensively
        
        produces many buds
  - - - biflagellate sperm
      - nonmotile egg
    - - where sperm is produced
    - - where eggs are produced
  - - - interference with the gametophore
      - absorbs sugar, minerals, & water
    - - expansion into simple apical sporangium
    - - narrow stalk
    - - separates the sporangium as cells are torn apart
    - - cell breakage elaborate & precise
      - one or two rows
      - respond to humidity
    - - layer of cells
      - derived from the neck of archegonium
  - - - bulk protects
      - short-term fluctuations
      - air humidity/moisture
        
        stems won't die
- - - - leafy liverworts
      - thallose liverworts
- - - - caused by lack of minerals
      - lakc of photosynthesis
      - absence of growth factors
      - hormones
      - minerals
- - - - Oxidized CO2 produces NADH for ETC
- - - - embryo secretes enzymes and break down the starch
- - - - spiral
        
        not aligned
      - whorled
        
        three or more leaves per node
      - opposite
        
        two leaves per node
      - decussate
        
        leaves in four rows
      - diachous
        
        leaves in two rows
      - alternate
        
        one leaf per node
  - - - dormant apical. meristem
  - - - horizontal stems
        
        spreads underground
  - - - like rhizomes
        
        growth is short
        
        stores nutrients
- - - - bands next to vascular bundles
      - plasticity
      - shooting tips
        
        elongating
      - flexible
      - cell wall thick
        
        glucose production
  - - - fragrance and oil
    - - another type
        
        short transport distance
  - - - function by dying at maturity
  - - - sclerids & fibers
    - - trachieds & vessel elements
- - - - growth originates here
    - - causes the growth
  - - - reticulate walls
- - - - outer tangential walls
        
        encrusted with cutin
        
        fatty substance makes impermeable
        
        builds up a cuticle
      - outer membrane
      - single layer of parenchyma cells
      - guard cells
        
        elongated outwards
        
        become trichomes/hairs
      - stromals between them
        
        froms stroma
    - - interior to epidermis
      - composed of parenchyma cells
      - partly composed of collenchyma cells
    - - not like animal vascular
      - two types
        
        xylem
        
        water and minerals
        
        phloem
        
        distributes minerals & sugars
    - - annular thickening
        
        small secondary wall in rings
      - tracheids
      - vessel elements
      - helical thickening
        
        secondary wall into three helices
      - reticulate thickening
        
        secondary wall shapes into net
      - scalariform thickening
        
        provides strength
    - - Steve cells
        
        non angiosperm
        
        ends pointed
        
        long/narrow
      - sleve tube memebers
        
        short/wide
        
        fat ends
        
        on end walls are large
        
        side walls are small
        
        companion cells
        
        angiosperms only
- - - - converts carbohydrates via light energy
    - - light harvesting portion
      - lamina
      - lower side of blade
        
        dorsal surface
        
        large veins protrude like a backbone
      - ventral surface
        
        upper side
        
        adaxial
        
        smooth to touch
      - petiole
        
        Salk
        
        holds blade out to the light
        
        prevents shading
        
        flexible for wind blowing
        
        keep insects off
      - sessile leaf
        
        no petioles
        
        small/ very long/ narrow
      - sheathing of blade leaf
        
        leaf wraps around base
        
        can flex and flutter
      - compound or simple
        
        simple
        
        blade is one part
        
        compound
        
        blade divided into many parts
        
        tough
        
        small blades called leaflets
        
        attached by petiolule
        
        extensions of petioles called rachis
  - - - eudicots
        
        reticular venation
        
        process is in the netted pattern
      - monocots
        
        parallel venation
        
        runs side by side
- - - - water loss through epidermis
      - serious problem when soil is dry
    - - granular and nongranular
  - - - region of nonmoving air
  - - - many crypts
        
        area where epidermis is deep in the leaf
  - - - upper surface
      - main photosynthetic tissue
      - separated slightly
        
        exposure to intercellular surfaces
      - one layer thick
    - - lower portion
      - open lose aerenchyma
      - CO2 diffusion fast
      - is either located in the center or lacking all together
  - - - lateral veins emerge
        
        move to minor veins
        
        responsible for release of H2O
        
        H2O from xylem sugars from phloem
      - envolved in conduction
- - - - protected from low temperatures and drying
  - - - causes that side to stop growing
      - other side grows
      - plant begins to coil
- - - - cylinder that encircles the shoot apical
    - - protaoxylem
      - protophloem
      - stretched and disrupted by Basal meristem
- - - - by polymer trap mechanism
      - sinks are sites
        
        receive transported phloem sap
  - - - xylem vessels & tracheas
  - - - force acting on molecule acts on another
    - - molecules interesting with other substance
  - - - increased transportation
    - - decreased transportation
    - - pores in leaf
        
        allow gas exchange
  - - - through plant & evaporation
  - - - specific mass transfer
    - - tune into sieve elements
- - - - increased surface ares
  - - - adjust H2O potential turgidity
    - - alters turgidity
        
        cell shape
  - - - K ions transported
        
        loss of K ions
        
        negative potential
        
        absorption of K ions
        
        increasingly negative
    - - hydraulic equilibrium
      - H2O enters & leaves
        
        no net change
- - - - protein
        
        binds to molecule & ATP
        
        ATP to ADP
        
        energy to pump
      - ATP for molecule movement
        
        across gradient
    - - vesicle moves in cytoplasm
        
        fusses with organelle
  - - - nothing gets through
      - isolation barriers
    - - molecules move through
      - no biological significance
    - - hydrophobic pass through
      - hydrophilic cross differentially
        
        protein channel
        
        aquaporins
      - certain substances move through
      - lips & proteins
- - - - solute
      - solvent
      - effect on H2O
    - - effects water potential
      - water under tension
      - postive or negative
      - pressure potential increases
      - water potential decreases
      - H2O under pressure
        
        measured by megapascals
- - - - lack of molecular oxygen
  - - - early second atmosphere
        
        lack of molecular oxygen
        
        presence of powerful reducing agents
    - - hydrogen is a light gas
        
        first atmosphere was lost in space
        
        replaced by second atmosphere
- - - - offspring resemble
        
        first gene pool small
  - - - new species evolve from a single ancestral species
        
        same geographic region
    - - prevents gene flow
  - - - prevents two populations from exchanging gens
    - - original species physically divide
        
        can't interbreed
  - - - occupy same or similar habitats
        
        natural selection may favor same phenotype
- - - - pollen transfer
        
        full haploid genom
        
        alleles are present in pollen grains
    - - vegetative propagation
        
        genetically identical to parent plant
        
        asexual reproduction
        
        multicellular structures
        
        detached from parent plant
      - seed dispersal
        
        overlooked seed
        
        alleles transferred
        
        new plant produces
        
        long distance dispersal
  - - - different from common ancestor
  - - - species gradually change
        
        considered a new species
    - - populations of species evolves
      - populations continue unchanged
        
        or evolve into 3rd species
- - - - organism can't adapt
    - - population size
      - decreases existing alleles
      - new alleles increase
    - - alter alleles frequency of gene pool
      - produce ornamental plants & flowers
      - selective breeding
        
        crops & domestic animals
    - - most adaptive survive
      - most significant factor
      - factors not apart of natural selection
        
        decision making
        
        purpose
        
        intention planning
      - conditions before natural selection
        
        differential survival
        
        produce more offspring
        
        to survive and grow
        
        pony must differ in alleles
- - - - omega-6, linoleic
      - omega-3, alpha linolenic
    - - castor bean oil :cry:
  - - - Solanum tuberosum, potatoes
        
        earliest crop species
        
        ~11kya
        
        easily propagated
        
        eaten w/little prep
        
        store simply & long-term
      - sugar
        
        Saccharum officinale, sugar cane
        
        Beta vulgaris, sugar beet
        
        Acer sp., maple trees
        
        honey
      - grains
        
        wheat
        
        ~9kya
        
        Triticum monococcum (einkorn)
        
        Triticum dicoccum (emmer)
        
        Triticum aestivum (modern wheat)
        
        Hordeum vulgare, barley
        
        beer, fermentation=+vitamins& sterile
        
        Oryza sativa, rice
        
        GMO: golden rice, VitA deficiency
        
        Zea mays, corn
        
        caryopses, grass fruit
        
        germ=embryo
        
        bran=seed coat+ fruit wall
        
        Avena sativa, oats
      - Ipomoea batatas, sweet potato
        
        orange=beta-carotene (VitA precursor)
        
        low glycemic index
      - Dioscorea sp., yam
      - Manihot esculenta, cassava (tapioca pudding)
  - - - Legumes, Fabaceae
    - - complete =20 amino acids
      - complementary proteins
      - incomplete=low in >/=1 amino acid
  - - - VitC & E
        
        Rutaceae (citrus family)+Vit C
      - carotenoids (red, yellow pigments)
      - flavonoids (berries)
      - phenolic cmpds (tea/coffee)
  - - - terpenes, conifer needles & citrus fruits
      - phenols
      - alkaloids
    - - spices
      - herbs
    - - capsaicin, heat, hot peppers
        
        Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae
        
        Scoville scale
        
        bell pepper=0 SHU
        
        hottest pepper known = Bhut Jolokia, 1million SHU
        
        jalapeno =2500-8000 SHU
      - mint
        
        Lamiaceae
        
        mint, spearmint, peppermint, basil, sage, rosemary, oregano
        
        leaves used
      - savory
        
        Apiaceae
        
        anise, caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel
        
        fruits
      - mustard
        
        allyl isothiocyanate
        
        chemicals kept separate
        
        seeds
      - cinnamon
        
        bark of tree
        
        true cinnamon is Cinnamomum zeylanicum
        
        other Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae) called cassia
      - cloves
        
        flower bud
        
        Syzgium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) tree
        
        fragrant oil eugenol
        
        antimicrobial properties
      - black pepper
        
        Piper nigrum vine
        
        one of oldest spice ~4kya in India
        
        drupe fruit
        
        processed depending on type wanted
      - vanilla
        
        Vanilla planifolia, orchid
        
        lot of hand manipulation
      - chocolate
        
        Theobroma cacao, small tree
        
        seeds processed through fermentation
- - - - jute Corchorus sp. (Malvaceae)
        
        burlap
      - flax Linum usitatissimum
        
        linen
        
        early textile ~36kya
      - Ramie, Boehmeria nivea
        
        used to make netting
      - kenaf, Hibiscus cannabinus
      - hemp, Cannabis sativa
      - sisal, Agave sisalina
      - cotton
        
        trichomes on seed coat
        
        most important commercial plant fiber
      - paper
        
        several sp: pines, poplar, kenaf
        
        sulfate vs sulfite production method digest middle lamella
  - - - particleboard
      - plywood
      - oriented strand board
  - - - from plant cuticle
      - carnauba wax Copernicia prunifera,Brazilian palm
      - candelilla wax, Euphorbia antisyphilitica
    - - sticky, viscous liquid produced by trees
      - pine resin to turpentine
      - rosin=resin-terpenes
      - aroma
        
        frankincense Boswellia sacra (Burseraceae)
        
        myrrh Commiphora sp.
    - - tung oil, linseed oil, walnut oil
      - varnish=oil+resin
- - - - marijuana
        
        Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)
        
        dioecious
        
        tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
      - tea
        
        Camellia sinensis (Theacae)
        
        phenols
      - coffee
        
        Coffea arabica
        
        Coffea canephora robusta (Rubiaceae)
      - cola
        
        originally seeds from Cola sp. tree
    - - tobacco
        
        nicotine
        
        Nicotiana tabacum
        
        Nicotiana rustica (Solanaceae)
      - opium
        
        Papaver somniferum
        
        ancient crop ~5kya
        
        latex from young fruit
        
        morphine & codeine
      - cocaine
        
        Erythoxylum coca
        
        Erythoxylum novogranatense
        
        cocaine-coke-crack
        
        amplifies dopamine neurotransmitter
  - - - burn treatment
    - - induce vomit
      - ipecac syrup
    - - periwinkle
      - vinblastine & vincristine
      - anticancer drug
    - - mayapple
      - alkaloids
      - treat cancer
    - - quinine
      - kills malaria causing protozoans
      - gave rise to gin & tonics :smiley:
    - - digitoxin & digitalin
      - stabilize heartbeat at low doses
    - - salicylic acid
      - pain relief
  - - - strychnine
      - disrupts chloride ions in nerve cells
    - - aconitine
      - interferes w/sodium metabolism in heart
    - - atropine
      - rapid heart beat, hallucinations, seizures & often death
- - - - Ethanol produced by fermentation #
        
        kills yeast if its built up to 18%
        
        stronger concentration mixture must be distilled by heating and then adding water #
      - Beer
        
        starch much be converted into glucose
        
        embryo secretes enzymes and break down the starch
        
        Grains are dried out called malt and from there the malt is mixed with H2O
      - Wine
        
        fermented grapes
        
        grapes are mainly fructose and glucose
        
        yeast attacks the skin of grapes
        
        white wine fermented at 10-15 degrees C
        
        Reds fermented at 25-30 degrees F
        
        the fermentation vast have valves to allow for CO2 to escape with allowing O2 to enter
        
        If O2 is present it will add a bacteria that will turn into ethanol to acidic aid to vinegar
      - Spirits
        
        ethanol content above 20%
        
        solution is toxic to yeast above 20% and they die
        
        to get high alcohol content ethanol needs to be distilled
        
        when distilled the solution is heated causing alcohol to evaporate. the vapors that evaporated are transported into a pipe and condense into a new liquid with a higher concentration
  - - - gamma rays, X-rays microwaves
    - - absorbs certain wavelengths
    - - release of light by pigment #
  - - - small protein
      - ferredoxin-NADP reductase
        
        enzyme
        
        reduces NADP
  - - - electrons onto carbon of CO2
      - stoma reactions endergonic
- - - - colors or wavelengths
    - - light intensity
    - - number of hours per day the sunlight is available
  - - - absorption
      - tight intercellular space
      - water loss reduced
  - - - day time stoma open
        
        loss of water
      - night time stoma closed
        
        retains H2O CO2 can't enter
      - C4 metabolism
        
        amount of H2O lost per molecule of CO2
        
        CO2 diffuses slowly into leaf
        
        photorespiration
        
        energy wasting
        
        break down of phosphoglycolate
        
        RuBP
        
        picks up O2
        
        uses 30% of ATP and NADPH
        
        Enzyme
        
        PEP
        
        enzyme
        
        high affinity for CO2
      - Crassulacean Acid metabolism
        
        improves conservation
        
        not efficient
        
        CO2 is too small
- - - - allow pigments to enter every reaction
        
        molecules can't move across membranes
        
        difficult to control
      - energized pigments to make several less energetic intermediates- can be moved easy
        
        Produce ATP--- converted to ADP
        
        photophosphorylation: involves light energy
        
        substrate-level phosphorylation: animals, fungi, nonchlorophyllous
        
        occurs in the all parts of the plant
        
        oxidative phosphorylation: chloroplast
  - - - Oxidized: atom doesn't carry as many electrons
      - Reduced: electrons added to atom
      - reduction reaction: reduces positive charge
      - oxidation reaction: increases positive charge
  - - - cofactors, heme that hold iron atom
      - integral part of chloroplast's thylakoid membrane
      - carry electrons only between sites that are close together
    - - transport electrons over short distances
      - pick up 2 electrons to bind 2 protons
      - hydrocarbon tail= hydrophobic
    - - small protein carries electron on metal atom
      - moves short distances in the chloroplast
- - - - role of fungi
    - - fungus and roots of vascular host
  - - - nutrients
      - water
    - - used to absorb moisture
  - - - stem of certain plants
    - - stem elongates
  - - - starch and nutrients
    - - grow underground
  - - - prevents trees from falling
  - - - expand fast
    - - monocots
    - - dandelion
  - - - roots system VS. strangling fig
    - - send straight down through air
- - - - embryonic roots
  - - - epidermal cells extend
    - - cells undergo division/expansion
    - - protection
        
        growing tip
    - - lubricates passage
    - - not elongating
  - - - relevant with older plants
- - - - meristematic
      - develop starch grains
  - - - passage of minerals
      - transfusion of cell
      - opposite of protaoxylem strands
  - - - increase water absorption
    - - between vascular tissue and endodermis
      - lateral roots produced
    - - controls minerals passing through
    - - no access to vascular tissue