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Seed Plants - Gymnosperms (Seed Ferns (Later Species Had Parenchyma, Not…

- - - - Anuerophyton
      - Proteokalon
  - - - Earliest Known Species with Heterospory
      - 390 Million Years Ago
    - - Tissue Layer
      - Surrounds Megasporangium
    - - Hole In Integument
      - Permitted Sperm Cells to Swim to Egg
    - - Space at Top of Megasporangium
      - Where Microspores Settled
- - - - Simple Cones
      - Single, Short Unbranched Axis
      - Bears Microsporophylls
    - - Complex, Compound
      - Cone Bracts
        
        Bears Megasporophylls
      - Ovuliferous Scale
        
        Fused Megasporophylls
        
        Fused to Bract
  - - - Elongated Cells
      - Pushes Cells Deeper into Megagametophyte
    - - Develop into the Embryo
- - - - 30 Species
    - - 40 Species
    - - 1 Species
- - - - Effect of Pressure
        
        Measured in MegaPascals or Bars
    - - Effect of Solutes
      - Number of Particles Present
    - - Adhesion to Nondissolved Structures
  - - - Bursting of Animal Cells in Pure Water
    - - Weak Walls
      - Cannot Stop Water Absorption
      - Causes Cell Growth
    - - Causes Wilting
      - Incipient Plasmolysis
        
        Protoplast Pulls Slightly From Wall
      - Plasmolyzed
        
        Protoplast Pulls Completely From Wall
- - - - Wall and Intercellular Spaces
  - - - Shrunked
      - Little Internal Pressure
      - Hydraulic Equilibrium
    - - Active Transport of K+
      - No Diffusion
      - No Hydraulic Equilibrium
  - - - Accumulate or Expel K+
      - Adjust Water Potential and Turgidity
- - - - Little Biological Significance
      - All Solutions Diffuse Through
    - - Isolation Barries
      - No Movement Through Allowed
    - - Also Called Differential
      - Certain Substances Pass Through
      - All Lipid/Protein Cells Membranes
    - - Protein Channels
      - Allows Water to Pass Through All Membranes
    - - Force Molecules Across Membranes
      - Uses ATP
      - Called Active Transport
- - - - Any Force Acting On One Acts On Every One
    - - Molecules Interact With Other Substances
      - Makes Water Less Free to Move
      - Adheres to Soil Molecules Firmly
    - - Requires Lots of Energy To Move
  - - - Widely Accepted Model of Process
      - Transstomatal Transpiration
        
        Water Loss Through Open Stomata
      - Transcuticular Transpiration
        
        Water Loss Through Cuticle
    - - Body Water Content Changes with Habitat
      - Lichins
    - - Water Column Breaks
      - Breaking of Hydrogen Over a Large Area
      - Tracheid Won't Conduct Water Again
    - - Space Between the Cavitation Points
      - Expands Surface Until Encountering a Barrier
- - - - Sites Where Water and Nutrients are Transported
    - - Sugars
      - Sieve Tube Members or Sieve Cells
    - - Unpermeable to Polysaccharides
    - - Functional Unit
      - Conducting Cell with Companion Cells
    - - Sugars and Nutrients Transported Per Hour
      - Specific Mass Transfer
        
        Mass Transfer Divided by the Area of Phloem
    - - Receive Transported Phloem Sap
      - Extremely Diverse
      - Not All Active at Same Time
      - Rapid Flow of Phloem Sap
        
        Controlled By Plants
    - - P-Protein
        
        Fine Network
        
        Adjacent to Plasma Membrane
        
        P-Protein Plug
        
        Tangled Mass of P-Protein
        
        Plugs Up Breaks
      - Callose
        
        Stays Only if Under Pressure
- - - - Carpels Fuse Side by Side
      - Fused Sides Called Septa
      - Septal Nectaries
        
        Open Areas
        
        Secrete Nectar
    - - Small Bulbs to Vining Epiphytes
      - Distinctive Chemical Compounds
      - Large, Colorful, and Showy Flowers
    - - Largest and Most Diverse Family
      - Many Terrestrial
      - One Subterranean Parasite
      - Zygomorphic Leaves with Complex Shapes, Colors, and Fragrances
      - Produce Thousands of Seeds in Each Fruit
  - - - Contains the Palms
      - 3,500 Species
      - Scattered Vascular Bundles
      - Leaves Occur Near Shoot Apex Only
      - Simple Leaves Torn Into Pinnate or Palmate
      - Flowers Seldom Seen
    - - Contains Grass Family, Cattails, Bromeliads, and Sedges
      - 8,000 Species - Grasses
      - Most Foods and Bamboo
      - Grasses Abundant in Flat, Open, Dry Regions
      - Wind Pollinated - Grasses
      - Just One Ovule - Grasses
      - Sedges
        
        4,000 Species
        
        Wet, Marshy Areas
        
        Reduced Flowers and Dry Fruits
        
        Stem is Triangular
      - Cattails
        
        Ponds and Marshy Areas
        
        Single Branch
    - - Maranta, Calathea, Canna Lilies, and Gingers
      - Large, Showy Flowers
      - Pollinated by Bats, Birds, and Insects
      - Sepals are Fused Together
      - Bilaterally Symmetrical Flowers
      - Three Fused Carpels
      - Zingiberaceae
        
        1,000 Species
        
        Tropical, Soft, Nonleathery Herbs
        
        Broad Leaves with a Petiole
- - - - Three Germination Pores
  - - - Flowers Have Little Fusion
      - Flowers Have Many Stamens and Carpels
    - - Large Trees
      - Reduced Wind-Pollinating Flowers
      - Sycamores
    - - Poppy Family
      - Ornamental Species
      - Argemone
        
        Prickly Poppy
      - papaver
        
        Poppies
    - - "Core Caryophyllales"
        
        Cacti
        
        Iceplant
        
        Spinach
        
        Beets
        
        Produce Betalains
        
        Water-Soluble Pigments
        
        Lacked Petals in Flowers
      - Endosperm Develops and Fails to Grow
      - Perisperm
        
        Nutritive Tissue
        
        Surrounds Developing Envelope
        
        Absorbed by Seed Maturation
      - Herbaceous
      - No Wood, Little Wood, or Unusual Wood
      - Origin of 70-80 Million Years Ago
    - - Small Order
      - Modified and Parasitic Plants
  - - - Large Clades
      - Contain More than 100 Families Together
    - - Ornamental Gena
      - Fruits that can be Grown in Temperate Regions
  - - - Occur Rarely Outside of the Clade
      - Deter or Kill Animals
    - - Euasterids I
    - - Euasterids II
- - - - Only One Cotyledon
      - Leaves have Parallel Veins
      - Leaves are Elongate and Strap Shaped
      - Vascular Bundles Throughout Stem
      - No Ordinary Second Growth
      - Flowers Have Parts in Three's
    - - Much More Diverse
      - Greater Number of Plants
      - Two Cotyledons
      - Leaves Have Reticulate Venation
      - Vascular Bundles Occur in a Ring
      - Woody, Herbaceous, or Succulent
      - Flower Parts Occur in Sets of 5 or 4
    - - Early Angiosperms
- - - - Gametophores
        
        Leafy Stems
        
        Grow Close Together
        
        Form Dense Mounds
        
        Can Be More Open and Loose
        
        Grow From an Apical Meristem
        
        Can Have Thin Lamellae
        
        Cuticle Only On Upper Surface
      - Stems
        
        Always Slender
        
        Little Tissue Differentiation
        
        Tissues Known as Cortex
        
        Stems Can Have Hair
        
        Inside Contains Larger Cells
    - - Hydroids
        
        Cells that Conduct Water
        
        Also Conduct Dissolved Minerals
        
        Elongated Cells
        
        Lose Cytoplasm at Maturity
        
        Aligned Above and Below with Others
      - Leptoids
        
        Resemble Sieve Cells
        
        Elongated
        
        Prominent Interconnections
        
        Lack Nuclei at Maturity
      - Mosses Lack Leptoids and Hydroids
      - Conduct Water by Capillary Action on Exterior
      - Rhizoids
        
        Located at Base of Stem
        
        Multicellular Trichome-Like Structures
        
        Penetrate Surface of Substrate
        
        Anchor the Stem
        
        Lack Cholorplasts
        
        Have Reddish Wall
    - - Protonema
        
        Branched System of Similar Cells
        
        Resembles Green Alga but More Chloroplasts
        
        Grow Extensively
        
        Perennial
    - - Oogamous
        
        Every Species has Egg Cells and Sperm Cells
        
        Antheridia
        
        Sperm Cells
        
        Short Stalk
        
        Occur in Microgametangia
        
        Archegonia
        
        Egg Cells
        
        Occur in Megagametangia
  - - - What Basal Cell Develops Into
      - Small, Bulbous Tissue
    - - Simple Apical Sporangium
      - Outer Layer of Sterile Cells
      - Inner Column of Sterile Cells
    - - Narrow Stalk
      - Between Foot and Sporangium
      - Always Basic and Simply
    - - Caplike Lid
    - - Result of Cell Breakage
      - One or Two Rows of Teeth
- - - - Leafy Liverworts
        
        Phase Greatly Resembles the Moss
        
        Thin Leaves on Slender Stem
      - Thallose Liverworts
        
        Two Rounded Lobes
        
        No Midrib
        
        No Conducting Tissue
        
        Three Clearly Defined Rows
        
        Thallus
        
        Body of Liverwort
        
        Stratified
        
        Much Thicker
        
        Air Pores
        
        Bisexual or Unisexual
- - - - Size of the Area
      - Larger Areas are More Diverse
    - - Area and Species Richness Relationship
      - Forumala S=cA2
    - - Number of Species at a Local Site
    - - Several Small Sites in a Large Region
    - - Number of Species in a Region
    - - Number of Species in Each Abundance Class
      - Not Truly Accurate
- - - - Feeding Rate
        
        How Quickly Predator Finds Prey
      - Handling Time
        
        Amount of Time Needed to Consume Prey
    - - Functional Response Dependent on Prey Density
    - - Population Stability
    - - Improved Conditions
      - Predator Overexploits the Prey
      - Both Predator and Prey Will be Lost
      - Loss of Species Diversity
    - - Stabilized Species Number
      - Harvesting Enough Species to Keep a Certain Point
    - - Amount of Individuals That Can Be Harvested with Certain Effort
      - Healthy Populations = Abundant Harvest
    - - Can Only Fixed a Certain Amount
      - Potentially Harmful
  - - - Probability of Encountering Prey
      - Chances of Attacking the Prey
      - Can the Prey be Eaten
    - - Formed From Optimal Foraging Theory
      - Prefer Prey that Yields Most Energy
      - If Prey Becomes Scarce, Eat Lower Energy Prey That's Abundant
      - Some Prey Will Never Be Eaten
      - Less Profitable Prey Will be Ignored if More Profitable is Near
  - - - Several Species Competing For Resources
    - - Organisms Consume a Shared Resource
      - Resource Becomes Less Available for Others
    - - Restricting an Organism's Access to Resources
      - May Not Actually Use Resource
    - - Species Much Interfere With Themselves More than Each Other
      - If They Can Increase in Density
    - - Anything That Can Lead to Increased Growth Rates
- - - - Create Good Conditions for Seedlings
    - - Organisms Establish on Newly Created Substances
      - After a Volcano or Glacier
- - - - Where DNA Uncoils and Separates
- - - - What Causes Mutations
      - Chemicals
      - X-Rays
      - UV Lights
      - Radiation
    - - DNA Looping and Getting Left Out
    - - Accidental Incorporation
    - - Insertion and Deletion Causes
      - Change Position from Chromosomes
      - Insertion Sequences
        
        Few Thousand Base Pairs Long
        
        Code Enzymes Involved in Cutting Insertion Sequence Out
      - Transposon
        
        Longer Insertion Sequence
        
        Codes for Proteins Unassociated with Transposition
      - Vary in Severity
- - - - Single Character is Analyzed and Studied
      - Other Traits Not Considered
      - Much Simpler to Understand
    - - First Set of Parents
    - - Offspring of Parental Generation
      - First Filial Generation
      - Offspring Called F2
    - - Two Identical Alleles
    - - Differing Alleles
    - - Incomplete Dominance
  - - - Plant's Own Pollen Fertilizes Own Eggs
      - Crossing With Same Genotypes
    - - Determines Potential Genotypes
      - Gregor Mendel
  - - - Trait Shows Up
    - - Trait is "Hidden"
  - - - Line of Homozygous Plants
    - - Annual Plants
- - - - Crossing-Over of Homologous Chromosomes
      - Recombination of Alleles
    - - One Percent of Recombination Percentages
      - One Centimorgan
      - Approx. 1 Million Base Pairs
- - - - Both Parental Alleles Transmitted Equally
      - All Genes in Nucleus
    - - Zygote Gets Most Material from Maternal Parents
      - Maternal Inheritance
    - - Presence of Discolored Spots
      - Caused by Plastid Inheritance
  - - - More than Two Sets of Chromosomes
      - Odd Ones are Sterile
      - Even Levels Are Successful
    - - Chromatids Remain Together
    - - Duplicates of Wild Type Genes
    - - Multiple Gene Copies
- - - - Cells Continue to Divide
      - Cells Between Metaxylem and Metaphloem
      - Must Be Extended Each Year
      - Only Two Cell Types
        
        Fusiform Initials
        
        Ray Initials
    - - Mature Parenchyma Cells Resume Mitosis
      - Connects to Fasicular Cambium on Both Sides
      - Between Vascular Bundles
      - Only When Cambium is Young
  - - - One is a Fusiform Initial
      - Differentiates into Secondary Xylem or Phloem
      - One Always Remains a Cambium
      - Periclinal Division
    - - Produce Narrow Daughter Cells
      - Inside Cells Increase in Diameter
  - - - Storage Parenchyma
      - Albuminous Cells
  - - - Short Vertical Rows
      - One Cell Wide
        
        Uniseriate
      - Two Cells Wide
        
        Biseriate
      - Many Cells Wide
        
        Multiseriate
    - - Regular Horizontal Rows
        
        Storied Cambium
        
        Advanced Eudicot Species
      - Irregular Horizontal Rows
        
        Nonstoried Cambium
- - - - Wood
      - Same Cells as Primary Xylem
      - Radial System
        
        Develops from Ray Initials
        
        Typically Simple
        
        Contains Only Parenchyma
        
        Arranged as Rays
        
        Store Carbohydrates in Dormancy
        
        Upright Cells
        
        Direct Contact with Axial Cells
        
        Procumbent Cells
        
        No Direct Contact with Axial Cells
        
        Ray Tracheids
        
        Horizontal, Rectangular Cells
      - Axial System
        
        Derived from Fusiform Initials
        
        Tracheary Elements
        
        Longitudinal Water Conduction
        
        Temporary Water Reservoir
        
        Contains Fibers
        
        Hardwoods
        
        No Fibers
        
        Softwoods
        
        Complexity Varies
    - - Vascular Cambium Quiescent During Stress
        
        Winter
        
        Active When Ceased
      - Early Wood
        
        Spring Wood
        
        Lots of Wide Vessels or Tracheids
      - Late Wood
        
        Thickened Cuticle
        
        Less Transpiration
        
        Lower Number of Vessels
        
        Larger and Heavier
        
        Year Older
        
        Needs More Strength
      - Also Called Annual Ring
        
        Marks Year of Growth
    - - Heartwood
        
        Dark Center of Log
        
        Drier and Fragrant
        
        Due to Water Column Breakage and Tylosis Covering
        
        Wider With Age
      - Sapwood
        
        Lighter, Outer region
        
        One Ring Converted a Year to Heartwood
        
        New Layer Formed Each Year
      - Tylosis
        
        Acts as a Plug
    - - Responds to Stress
      - Tension Wood
        
        Upper Side of Branch
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Eccentric Growth Rings
        
        Gelatinous Fibers
        
        Prevent Drooping
      - Compression Wood
        
        Conifers
        
        Underside of Branch
        
        Growth Rings are Wide
        
        Lignin Enriched
        
        Less Cellulose
- - - - Angiosperms
    - - Conifers
- - - - Phellogen
      - Cuboidal Cells Only
      - Outer Cells Become Cork Cells
        
        Phellem Cells
        
        Die After Maturation
      - Phelloderm
        
        Parenchyma Layer
      - Periderm
        
        Cork Cambium, Cells, and Periderm
        
        Impermeable Layer
      - Typically Short Lived
        
        New Ones Must Form
    - - Tissues Outside Innermost Cork Cambium
    - - Secondary Phloem
      - Between Vascular and Innermost Cork Cambium
  - - - Allow Diffusion for Oxygen
      - Intercellular Spaces Between Rounded Cells
      - Outer and Inner Lenticels are Aligned
        
        Permits Diffusion Across all Layers
      - Lots of Cell Layers
      - Located at Base of Cracks
- - - - Produces Cork Cells on Outside
      - Lenticels Occur
- - - - Storage Parenchyma Numbers Increased
      - Numerous Vascular Cambias
        
        Speeds Up Storage Capacity
    - - No Cambium Present
      - Oldest Phloem Becomes Cambium
      - Protects Phloem from Dangers
    - - Two Active Sectors
      - Two Inactive Sectors
      - Stem Becomes Thing and Flat
      - Gives Flexibility
    - - Joshua Trees and Dragon Trees
      - Vascular Cambium Outside of Vascular Bundles
      - Produces Only Parenchyma Cells
      - Secondary Vascular Bundles
  - - - Trunks Don't Taper at Ends
      - All Primary Tissue
      - No Vascular Cambium
      - No Radial Growth
      - Strong, Heavy Fibers Surround Vascular Bundles
      - Numerous Adventitious Roots
        
        Allows Trunk Growth and Leaf Production
        
        Establishment Growth
- - - - Haploid Sex Cells
      - Sperm or Eggs
      - Can Undergo Syngamy or Fertilization
    - - Formation of a Sperm and Egg Cell
      - Fertilized Egg
    - - Sporophytes
        
        Always Diploid
        
        Capable of Meiosis
        
        Meiosis Results in Haploid Spores
        
        Spores Cannot Undergo Syngamy
        
        Grows into a Gametophyte
    - - Small Sperm Cells
      - Able to Swim
    - - Large Egg Cells
      - Cannot Swim
    - - Male
      - Grow from Microspores
    - - Female
      - Grow from Megaspores
    - - Consists of two Generations
      - Heteromorphic Generations
        
        Gametophytes don't Resemble Sporophytes
  - - - Flower Stalk
    - - Very End of Axis
      - Where other Flower Parts are Attached
    - - Petals
        
        Petals Make up the Corolla
        
        Sepals and Petals Make up the Perianth
        
        Contain Pigments other than Chlorophyll
        
        Few to No Fibers
        
        Thin and Delicate
        
        Can Absorb UV Lights
      - Sepals
        
        Lower and Outermost Part
        
        Modified Leaves
        
        Surround and Enclose Other Parts
        
        Thickest, Toughest, and Waxiest
        
        Protects Flowering Bud
        
        Protects from Birds and Insects
        
        Calyx is all the Sepals
      - Stamens
        
        Collectively called Androecium
        
        Referred to as the Male Part
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk
        
        Anther
        
        Where Pollen is Produced
        
        Microsporocytes
        
        Tapetum
        
        Act as Nurse Cells to Microsporocytes
      - Carpels
        
        Make Up the Gynoecium
        
        Located on the Highest Level
        
        Stigma
        
        Catches Pollen Grains
        
        Style
        
        Elevates the Stigma to Useful Positions
        
        Ovary
        
        Where Megaspores are Produced
        
        Placentae
        
        Regions of Tissue
        
        Bear Ovules
        
        Central Mass of Parenchyma called Nucellus
        
        Megasporocytes
        
        Develop into Seeds after Fertilization
        
        Can have 0 to Many Cartels
      - Complete Flowers have all 4
      - Incomplete Lack 1-2
  - - - What Microspores Develop into
      - Very Small and Simple
      - Consists of a Vegetative Cell and 2 Sperm Cells
      - Pollen Tube
        
        Penetrates into the Stigma
        
        Carries Sperm Cell to Ovule
    - - Technical Term is Embryo Sac
      - One Large Central Cell
      - Two Polar Nuclei
      - Three Small Antipodal Cells
      - An Egg Apparatus
      - And an Egg
  - - - Syngamy of Sperm and Egg
    - - Fusion of the Protoplasts
    - - Triploid
      - Three Sets of Full Genes
      - Double Fertilization
    - - Nourishes Zygote Development
  - - - Short, Stalk-Like Structure
      - Pushes Embryo into Endosperm
      - Usually Delicate
    - - Two Primordia
      - Occurs in Basal Angiosperms and Eudicots
    - - Short Axis Established
        
        Radicle
        
        Embryonic Root
        
        Epicotyl
        
        Embryonic Stem
        
        Hypocotyl
        
        Shoot/Root Junction
    - - Mature Speed
      - Endosperm is Abundant
    - - Sparse or Absent Endosperm
    - - Also Called Testa
      - Expanded and Matured Integuments
  - - - What the Ovary Develops Into
    - - Exocarp
        
        Outer Layer
        
        Skin or Peel
      - Mesocarp
        
        Middle Layer
        
        Flesh
      - Endocarp
        
        Innermost Layer
        
        May be Tough or Thin
      - Pericarp
        
        Entire Fruit Wall
- - - - Pollinating from the Same Individual
  - - - Chemical Reactions that Prevent Pollen Growth
      - Test of Proteins on Tube Surface
  - - - Stamens and Carpels
      - Produce Critically Important Spores
      - Sexual Reproduction is Affected if Not Present
      - Produce Pollen
    - - Lack Essential Organs
    - - Have Essential Organs
    - - Sepals and Petals
      - Don't Produce Pollen
    - - Individuals that Produce only Staminate Flowers
      - Individuals that Only Produce Carpellate Flowers
      - Individual Cannot Produce Both
      - Extreme Adaptation
    - - Staminate and Carpellate Flowers on Same Plant
  - - - Shape is Important
      - Actinomorphic
        
        Also called Regular
        
        Radially Symmetrical
      - Zygomorphic
        
        Bilaterally Symmetrical Flowers
  - - - Ovaries Located Below Other Organs
      - Many Protective Layers
    - - No Fusion to the Ovary
      - Ovary Above Other Flower Parts
    - - Half Buried Ovary
- - - - Contain Only Ovarian Tissue
    - - Nonovarian Tissue Present
    - - Most Common Kind
      - Develops From Single Ovary
    - - Develop from Separate Cartels that Fuse
      - Raspberries
    - - Individual Fruits Fuse Into One
      - Figs, Mulberries, and Pineapples
  - - - Not Eaten by Seed-Distributing Animals
    - - Eaten During Distributing Process
    - - Break Open and Release Seeds
    - - Don't Break Open
    - - Light in Weight
      - Have Wings or Parachutes
      - Dry
    - - Fruits Can Hook Onto Them
      - Glue Themselves onto the animal
      - Eaten
- - - - Cell Type
      - Plant Type
      - Health
      - Age
      - Temperature
  - - - Entire Gene Complex
    - - Nucleotide Polymer
      - Attached to Other Genes
        
        Linking DNA
      - Chromosome
        
        Thousands of Attached Genes
        
        Centromere
        
        Telemere
    - - Half of Doubled Chromosome
    - - Replication of DNA
      - Before Differentiation
      - Occurs in:
        
        Hair
        
        Glandular Cells
        
        Intense Metabolic Cells
    - - Like Endoreduplication
      - Genes Repeatedly Replicated
  - - - Processes Chromosomes
      - Break Down Nuclear Envelope
- - - - Nucleus Division
      - Mitosis
        
        Duplication Division
        
        More Common
        
        Mother Cell Duplicated
        
        Prophase
        
        Chromosomes Condense
        
        Nucleolus Less Distinct
        
        Nuclear Envelope Breaks Down
        
        Migration to Poles
        
        Spindle Formation
        
        Long Microtubules
        
        Attach to Centromeres
        
        Metaphase
        
        Metaphase Plate
        
        Chromosomes Move to Centromeres
        
        Hard to Distinguish between Prophase
        
        Separase Produced
        
        Protein-Degrading Enzyme
        
        End of Metaphase
        
        Anaphase
        
        Pulling of Chromosomes
        
        20 ATP Needed
        
        Telophase
        
        Reversal of Prophase
        
        Spindle Disappears
        
        New Nucleoli Appear
        
        Chromosomes Less Distinct
        
        Nuclear Envelopes at Each End
    - - Cytoplasm Division
      - Prophase
        
        Preprophase Band
        
        Indenties Division Plane
      - Phragmoplast
        
        In Plants
        
        Short Microtubule Set
        
        Parallel to the Spindle
        
        Forms in Cell Center
        
        Grows Outward to Cell Walls
        
        Cell Plate
        
        Phragmoplast
        
        Vesicles
        
        New Cell Walls
      - Phragmosome
        
        Vacuole Division
  - - - Meiosis 1
        
        Prophase 1
        
        Same Processes as Mitosis
        
        Special Chromosome Interactions
        
        Leptotene
        
        Become Condense/Distinguishable
        
        Zygotene
        
        Synapsis
        
        Homologous Chromosome Pairing
        
        Pachytene
        
        Crossing-Over
        
        Mixing of Genes
        
        Genetic Diversity
        
        Diplotene
        
        Begin to Move Away
        
        Do Not Separate
        
        Tetrads
        
        Diakinesis
        
        Homologs Separate
        
        Paired at Centromeres
        
        Metaphase 1
        
        Spindle Microtubules Move Tetrads to Center
        
        Formation of Metaphase Plate
        
        Anaphase 1
        
        Chromosome Separate Completely
        
        No Centromere Division
        
        Telophase 1
        
        Chromosome Begin Uncoiling
        
        Sometimes Skipped
        
        Nucleolus and Nuclear Envelope Begin Appearing
      - Meiosis II
        
        Only if Telophase 1 Occurs
        
        Prophase II
        
        Not Subdivided
        
        Metaphase II
        
        Short
        
        Centromeres Divide
        
        Anaphase II
        
        Separates New Chromosome
        
        Telophase II
        
        New Nuclei Formed
        
        One Set of Chromosome/Chromatid
- - - - Intra/Extranuclear Spindles
    - - Only in Mitosis Occasionally Do They Remain
  - - - Plasma Membrane Pinches in Two
    - - Similar to Plants
    - - Spindle Depolymerizes
      - Daughter Nuclei Close Together
      - Phycoplast
        
        Spindles Between Daughter Nuclei
      - Nuclear Envelope Remains Whole
    - - Phragmoplast Division
        
        New Wall Formed By Pre-Exisiting Wall
        
        Pit Connection
- - - - Duplicated
        
        Pulled Apart
        
        Growth of Membrane
- - - - Glycosis
      - Citric Acid Cycle
      - Electron Transport Chain
        
        Oxidative Phosphorilation
  - - - Ancient
      - Produces ATP
      - Forms Pyruvates
        
        Ethanol
        
        Lactate
        
        Toxic
  - - - Voodoo Lilly (Sauromatum guttatum)
      - Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus)
    - - Plants
- - - - Increase
        
        Doubles Respiration Rate
        
        Can also Prohibit Rates
      - Decresase
        
        Decreases Respiration Rate
    - - Low Concentratoins
      - Variable Availability for Roots
  - - - Fruit Maturation
      - Seed Maturation
      - Metabolism Rates
- - - - Ales
      - Bitters
      - Stouts
    - - Lagers
      - Pilsners
    - - Fewer Calories
    - - Fermented Rice
      - Stronger than Beer
  - - - Vitis vinifera
    - - No Grape Skin
      - Ages 12-18 Months
    - - Grape Skin
      - Aged 5 Years
    - - Sherry
      - Port
      - Madeira
  - - - Whiskeys
      - Vodka
      - Gin
    - - Rum
    - - Tequila
        
        Agave tequilana
      - Mescal
        
        A. americana
  - - - Alcoholism
      - Deaths
      - Poisonous
- - - - Earliest Vascular Land Plants
      - Now Extinct
      - Short and Simple Upright Stems
      - No Leaves
      - Equal Dichotomous Branching
      - Homosporous
      - Rhiniophytes
    - - Similar to Cooksonia
      - Prostrate Rhizome
      - Upright Naked Stems
      - Terminal Sporangia
      - Cuticle, Stomata, and Guard Cells
    - - Gametophytes
      - No Sporangia
      - Larger and Complex than Common Mosses, etc.
      - Possible Alternate Phase of Rhynia
    - - Sporophytes with Naked Axes
      - Stomata and Terminal Sporangia
  - - - Solid Mass of Xylem
      - No Pith
      - Endarch Prostele
        
        Center Protoxylem
        
        Outeredge Metaxylem
      - Exarch Protostele
        
        Centered Metaxylem
        
        Outside Groups of Protoxylem
      - Siphonostele
        
        Pith Present in Center
        
        Occurs in Ferns and Seed Plants
- - - - Similar to Presumed Ancestors
      - Earliest Lycophytes
      - Larger Enations
        
        Called Mycophylls
        
        Increased Photosynthesis
      - Single Trace of Vascular Tissue
      - Evolution of True Roots #
      - Vascular Cambium and Secondary Growth
      - Wood Looked Like Secondary Xylem of Pines
      - Vascular Cambium Cells Couldn't Have Radial Longitudinal Division
  - - - Clustered Sporangia in Compact Groups
    - - Having Both Microspores and Megaspores
  - - - Fairly Common
      - Also Called Ground Pine or Club Moss
    - - Less common
      - Smaller Plants
      - Heterosporous
      - Ligule
        
        Small Flap of Tissue
    - - 60 Species
      - Contains the Quillworts
      - Small, Corn-like Stem
      - Heterosporous
- - - - Unequal Branching
    - - Single Main Trunk
      - Small Lateral Branches
  - - - Megaphyll Evolution
      - Telomes
        
        Ultimate Twigs
        
        Last Dichotomy
      - Sporophyll
        
        Sporangium-Bearing, Leaf-Like Structure
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        Monophyletic Clade
  - - - 15 Extant Species
      - All Herbs
      - No Secondary Growth
      - Small Leaves
      - True Roots
      - Branches Sometimes Present
      - Distinctive Internal Structure
        
        Stems have a Pith
        
        Siphonsteles
        
        Vessels are Rare
        
        Contains Canals
        
        Stomatal Pores and Guard Cells
    - - Umbrella-Shaped
      - Short Stalk
      - Flat, Shield-Shaped Head
      - Compact Spirals Forming a Strobilus
  - - - Leathery or Delicate
      - Small or Large
      - Almost Always Compound
      - Distinct Apical Cell
      - Considerable Amount of Vascular Tissue
      - Dichotomous Veins
      - Photosynthesis and Sporophylls
      - Sori
        
        Located Underside of Leaf
        
        Clusters of Sporangia
        
        Where Meiosis Occurs
    - - Eusporangia
        
        Several Surface Cells Undergo Periclinal Divisions
        
        Fundamental Type of Sporangia
        
        Outer Cells Develop into Sporangium Wall
        
        Inner Cells Proliferate into Sporogenous Tissue
        
        Relatively Large Sporangium, Many Pores
        
        Nearly All Plants
      - Leptosporangia
        
        Initiated by Single Surface Cell Dividing by Periclinal Division
        
        Forms Small, Outward Protrusion
        
        Only Few Spores Produced
        
        Only Occurs in Leptosporangiatae
        
        Small Set of Sporogenous Cells
        
        Thing Covering of Sterile Cells
- - - - Existing Alleles Decrease
      - New Alleles Increase
    - - When an Organism Cannot Adapt
      - All Alleles and Organisms are Eliminated
      - Small or Large Events
    - - Humans Change Allele Frequency
      - Selective Breeding
      - Carried Out with Artificial Mutation
    - - Less Adapted Organisms Die Off
      - Survival of the Fittest
      - Most Common Factor
      - Organisms Produce More Offspring than Sustainable
      - Organisms Much Differ in Alleles
      - Acts Only on Pre-existing Alleles
      - Doesn't Occur if:
        
        Habitat Can Sustain Everyone
        
        Flooding
        
        Burning
    - - Purpose
      - Intention
      - Planning
      - Voluntary-Decision Making
- - - - Wind Carries Pollen Far
    - - Long-Distance Disperal
      - Short-Distance Dispersal
    - - Small, Mobile Pieces
  - - - Physical, Nonliving Barrier
      - Prevents Two Populations From Reproducing
      - Mountain Ranges
    - - Rapid Formation of New Species
      - Founder Individuals
      - Genetic Drift
  - - - Two Groups Grow Together
      - Remain Reproductively Isolated
    - - Prezygotic Isolation Mechanisms
      - Polyzgotic Internal Isolation Barriers
    - - Seeds Grow into a Sterile Plant
- - - - Composed Mostly of Hydrogen
      - Second Atmosphere
        
        Produced by Rock Gasses
        
        Produced by Meteorites
      - Reducing Atmosphere
        
        Lack of Molecular Oxygen
        
        Powerful Reducing Agents
    - - Heat
      - UV and Gamma Radiation
      - Electricity
      - Volcanoes
    - - No Limits
  - - - Allowed Rusting
      - Allowed Aerobic Respiration
- - - - Autumn the Roots Die back
      - Carbohydrates Produce New Shoot in Spring
  - - - Transport Addition Nutrients and Water
    - - Tall, Platelike
      - Upper Side Grows Faster
      - Brace Against Wind
    - - Prop Roots Give More Stability in Storms
      - Cortex is Wide Aerenchyma
      - Air Chambers
  - - - Attached to Tree Branches
    - - Water-Proof Barrier
      - Root Epidermis
  - - - Woody Forest Plants
      - Fungal Hyphae Penetrate Outer Cortex Cells
      - Don't Invade the Cells
    - - Herbaceous Plants
      - Fungi Invade Cells to the Epidermis
        
        Branch Repeatedly
  - - - Where Bacterium Reside
    - - Simple or Complex
      - Function for Long Periods of Time
      - Plants and Bacteria Both Benefit
  - - - When Roots Don't Touch Soil
- - - - Layer Closest to Meristem
      - Undergo Cell Division
      - Transverse Walls
      - Files of Cells Pushed Forward
    - - Detect Gravity
    - - Metabolism and Structure Changes
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum Fades
      - Starch Grains Digested
      - Dictyosomes Secreates Mucigel
      - Middle Lamina Breaks Down
  - - - Quiescent Center
        
        Becomes Active if Damaged
        
        Inactive and Replaced After Fixed
      - Resistant to Harmful Agents
  - - - Increases Water/Mineral Absorption
    - - No Distinct Boundary
    - - Transfer Minerals to Vascular Tissue
        
        Apoplastic Transport
        
        Symplastic Transport
    - - Innermost Layer of Cortical Cells
      - Cells Have Tangential Walls
      - Radial Walls
        
        Encrusted with Lignin and Suberin
        
        Waterproof
      - Casparian Strips
        
        Bands of Altered Walls
        
        Control Mineral Flow
    - - No Pith
      - Surround by Phloem Strands
      - Not in Some Monocots
    - - Parenchyma Cells
      - Between Vascular Tissues and Endodermis
      - Lateral Roots Initiated Here
  - - - Water Absorption Reduced
      - Eventually Dies
    - - Only Have Casparian Strips
      - Slow to Develop
    - - Watertight Sheath Around Vascular Tissues
      - Older Roots Keep Water in
      - Superfluous Cortex and Epidermis
    - - Power Water Absorption
- - - - Single, Large Taproot
        
        Developed from Radicle
        
        Largest Root in System
      - Lateral or Branch Roots
        
        Can Become Swollen
        
        Create More Lateral Roots
        
        Can Have Secondary Growth
    - - Many Similar Sized Roots
      - Most Monocots
      - Some Eudicots
        
        After Cutting
      - Radicle Dies During/After Germination
      - Adventitious Roots
        
        Not Radicles
        
        Don't Arise from Pre-Existing Roots
        
        Increase Absorption
        
        Increase Transportation
        
        Allow Monocot Shoots to Grow Larger
  - - - Growth in Length
      - Discrete Apical Meristems
    - - Impossible to Elongate at Once
    - - Thick Layer of Cells
      - Protects Root Apical Meristem
      - Constantly Worn Away
      - Renewed By Cell Multiplication
      - Mucigel
        
        Lubricates Passage
        
        Carbohydrates and Amino Acids
    - - Behind Root Cap and Apical Meristem
      - Cells Divide and Expand
    - - Narrow Trichomes
      - Epidermal Cells Extend Outwards
      - Root Hairs
        
        Non-Elongating Root Part
        
        Increase Surface Area
        
        Enter Small Crevices
        
        Helps Form Carbonic Acid
- - - - Large Surface Area
      - Maximum Light Exposure
  - - - Keeps Bugs Off
      - Cools Leaf
      - Brings Fresh Air
  - - - Smalls Blades
      - Attached to a Petiolule
    - - Leaflets Attached to Same Point
    - - Leaflets Attached Individually
    - - Brings Carbon Dioxide
- - - - Cylindrical or Spherical Shapes
    - - Reduces Internal Evaporative Air Space
      - More Transparent
      - Deep Photosynthesis
  - - - Perennial Plants
  - - - Large Chlorophyllous Cells
  - - - Provides Nitrogen
    - - Active
        
        Move During Capture
      - Passive
        
        No Movement
      - Similar to Foliage Leaves
        
        Thin
        
        Parenchymatous
        
        Photosynthetic
        
        Stomata
        
        Vascular Bundles
      - Tubular Lamina
      - Absorptive Epidermis
- - - - Water Loss
      - Serious Problem
    - - Epidermal
      - Flat, Tubular
      - Guard Cells
      - Trichomes
        
        Provides Shade
        
        Prevent Rapid Air Movement
        
        Ward off Insects
        
        Can Be Poisonous
    - - Mostly Lower Side
      - Sunken in Epidermal Cavities
    - - Retain Water
      - Make Fungal Digestion Hard
  - - - Main Photosynthetic Tissue
      - Slightly Separated Cells
      - Upper Surface of Leaf
      - Some Have Only This
        
        Vertical Leaves
      - Horizontal Leaves
    - - Lower Portion of Leaf
      - Loose Aerenchyma
      - Rapid Carbon Dioxide Diffusion
      - Some Don't Have This
      - Horizontal Leaves
  - - - Eudicot Leaves
      - A.K.A Midvein
      - Lateral Veins
        
        Branched Minor Veins
        
        Release Water From Xylem
        
        Load Sugar into Phloem
        
        Material Exchange
      - Conduction
    - - Many Fibers in a Sheath
      - Hard to Chew
      - Bundle Sheath Extensions
        
        Mass of Fibers near Veins
        
        Give Rigidity to Blade
        
        Helps Move Water
  - - - Few Stomata and Trichomes
    - - Like a Cortex
      - Lots of Collenchyma
    - - Variable
      - Leaf Traces
      - Can Fuse or Branch
      - Multiple Patterns
        
        No Known Significance
    - - Two Small Flaps
      - Protect Shoot Apical Meristem
      - Die Early
      - Photosynthesis
- - - - Protoderm Cell Protrusion
      - Narrow Cone
      - Rapid Growth
      - Leaf Protoderm
      - Leaf Ground Meristem
      - Meristematic Cells
      - Cells Grow Outward
        
        Creates Lamina
      - Small Thin Wings Produced
        
        Meristematic Cells
  - - - Gives Hood-Like Shaped
    - - Encircles Apical Meristem
    - - Can Be Broad
      - No Predetermined Size
        
        Grows By Meristem
- - - - Thin
    - - Parenchyma Cell Mass
    - - Leaves
      - Petals
      - Fruits
      - Seeds
    - - Photosynthesis
      - Lots of Chloroplasts
    - - Secretions
        
        Nectar
        
        Fragrances
        
        Mucilages
        
        Resins
        
        Oils
      - Lots of Dictyosomes and ER
      - Transport/Transform/ Products Out
    - - Short Distance Transport
      - Large Plasma Membrane
      - Large-Scale Molecular Pumping
      - Increase Surface Area
    - - Creates Space for Gas Exchange
    - - Parenchyma Tissue
      - Nutrients Over Long Distances
  - - - Thin in Some Areas
      - Thickened at Corners
      - Plasticity
        
        Deformed by Pressure or Tension
        
        Retain Shape
    - - Must Be Short
    - - Works With Turgid Parenchyma
    - - Requires More Glucose
  - - - Elastic
    - - Determine Formation of Cells
      - Wind
      - Animals
      - Snow
    - - Allows Growth
    - - Long Fibers
        
        Flexible and Long
        
        Flowering Plant Wood
      - Short Sclereids
        
        Cuboidal
        
        Brittle and Inflexible
        
        Masses
        
        Walnut Shells
        
        Coconut Shells
        
        Cherry and Peach Pits
- - - - Space Between Nodes
      - Can Be Long
        
        Vines
      - Can Be Very Short
        
        Cabbage
      - Wide, Intermediate, or Narrow
  - - - Mini Shoot
      - Dormant Apical Meristem
      - Several Young Leaves
  - - - One Leaf
        
        Alternate Phyllotaxy
      - Two Leaves
        
        Opposite Phyllotaxy
      - Three or More Leaves
        
        Whorled
  - - - Short Shoots
      - Thick, Fleshy Leaves
    - - Vertical, Thick Stems
      - Thin, Papery Leaves
    - - Fleshy, Horizontal Stems
      - Allows Plants to Spread Underground
    - - Horizontal
      - Short Growth Period
    - - Hidden from Herbivores
    - - Dormancy Period
        
        Requires Storage Capacities
- - - - Stomatal Pores
        
        Make up a Stoma
        
        Allows Carbon Dioxide to Enter
        
        Allows Water Vapor to Escape
    - - Fatty Substance
      - Impermeable to Water
      - Cuticle
        
        Pure Layer
    - - "Hairs"
      - Makes Difficult for Animals to Land On
      - Blocks Some Incoming Sunlight
      - Many Different Sizes and Shapes
      - Many Unicellular
      - Some Multicellular
      - Die Shortly after Maturity
  - - - Aerenchyma
        
        Open Tissue
        
        Large Intercellular Space
    - - Large Cortical Air Chambers
        
        Provide Buoyancy
  - - - Conducting Cells
        
        Vessel Elements
        
        Moves Water with Less Friction
        
        Vessel
        
        Stacks of Vessel Elements
        
        Absorbs Water from Parenchyma Cells
        
        Has Perforations
        
        Tracheids
        
        Pass Water Up
        
        Uses Lots of Friction
        
        Tracheary Element
        
        Refers to Either Cell Type
        
        Annular Thickenings
        
        Secondary Wall as Set of Rings
        
        Interior Face of Primary Wall
        
        Large Surface Area for Water Movement
        
        Not Much Strength
        
        Wet Soil Plants
        
        Helical Thickening
        
        Secondary Wall as 1-3 Helices
        
        Wet Soil Plants
        
        Scalariform Thickening
        
        Provides Strength
        
        Secondary Wall Underlies Most Primary Wall
        
        Drier Soil Plants
        
        Reticulate Thickening
        
        Secondary Wall is Net Shaped
        
        Drier Soil Plants
        
        Circular Borded Pit
        
        Strongest Tracheary Element
        
        Secondary Wall Underlies All Primary Wall
        
        Drier Soil Plants
    - - Sieve Cells
        
        Albuminous Cells
      - Sieve Tube Members
        
        Controlled by Companion Cells
      - Sieve Element
        
        Refers to Either Cell
        
        Parenchyma Cells
        
        Only Primary Walls
        
        Must Remain Alive
        
        Sieve Pores
        
        Plasmodesmata Opening
        
        Sieve Areas
        
        Cluster of Sieve Pores
        
        Adjacent Sieve Pores Must Align
        
        Nuclei Degenerate
        
        Cells Still Alive
  - - - Region of Parenchyma
      - Similar to Cortex
    - - Xylem and Phloem Run Parallel
    - - Part of Primary Plant Body
      - Cells are Larger than Phloem
    - - Part of Primary Plant Body
- - - - Visible Differentiation
    - - Mitosis
      - Cytokinesis
- - - - Use Chemical Reactions
        
        Theoretical Examples
        
        Enter Every Reaction
        
        Make Smaller Molecules
      - Large Molecules
    - - Photophosphorylation
        
        Light Energy
      - Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
        
        Force of Phosphate onto ADP
        
        Animals
        
        Fungi
        
        Nonchlorophyllous Plants
      - Oxidative Phosphorylation
        
        Phosphorylation of ADP
- - - - More Postive
    - - Oxidize Material
      - NADP+
      - NAD+
  - - - More Negative
    - - Forcing Electrons onto Compounds
    - - Reduce Material
      - NADH
      - NADPH
  - - - Small Proteins
      - Contain Heme
      - Thylakoid Membranes (Part Of)
      - Carry Between Sites
    - - Hydrophobic
      - Short Distances
      - 2 Electrons
      - Binds 2 Protons
    - - Small Protein
      - Used in Copper
      - Short Distances
- - - - Light Dependent Reactions
      - Pigment
        
        Absorbs Certain Wavelengths
        
        Distinct Color
        
        Chlorophyll a
        
        Some Red/Blue Light
        
        No High-Energy Quanta
        
        Fluorescence
        
        Release of Light
        
        Chlorophyll b
        
        Land Plants
        
        Accessory Pigments
        
        Absorbs Light Missed by Chlorophyll a
        
        Photosynthetic Unit
        
        Pigments and Carries that Work Together
      - Photosystem I
        
        Little Chlorophyll b
        
        P700
        
        Pair of Chlorophylls
        
        Produces NADPH
      - Photosystem II
        
        Reduces P700
      - ATP Snythase
        
        Occurs in Thylakoid Lumen
    - - Makes Carbohydrate
      - Occurs in Stroma
      - A.K.A. Calvin Cycle
  - - - Anabolic Reactions
    - - Synthetic Pathways
        
        Fats and Polysaccharides
        
        Storage of Energy and Carbon
    - - Gluconeogenesis
        
        Glucose Synthesis
        
        Anabolic
      - Starch
        
        Amylose
        
        Digested Slowly
        
        Amylopectin
        
        Digested Quickly
        
        Makes Glucose Available
- - - - Colors
        
        Wavelengths
    - - More Light is Beneficial
        
        More CO2 Available
        
        May Be Too Intense
      - Less Light
        
        Less CO2 Available
    - - Long Hours
        
        Lots of Photosynthesis
        
        Can be Harmful
      - Short Hours
        
        Less Photosynthesis
  - - - Palisade Parenchyma Top Layer
      - Mesophyll Bottom Layer
      - Water Conservation Inefficient
    - - Cells Packed Tightly
      - Reduced Water Loss
      - Slows Photosynthesis
  - - - Daytime
      - Dry Soil
    - - Nighttime
  - - - Absorbed
      - Transported
      - Concentrated
    - - Chlorophyllous Cells
      - Mesophyll Cells
        
        PEP Carboxylase
        
        CO2 Affinity
        
        Reduced to Malate
  - - - Improves
    - - Acids are Accumulated
- - - - Factors that Directly Affect Plants
    - - Nonliving
      - Physical Phenomona
    - - Living Factors
      - Plant Itself
      - Other Plants
      - Animals, Fungi, Etc
  - - - Live In Weather Suited to Them
      - Extreme Temperatures Are Important
      - Moisture Plays a Role
      - Tolerance Range
        
        Between Extreme Temperatures
    - - Soil Formed By Breakdown of Rock
      - Pioneers
        
        First Plants to Invade New Soil
      - A Horizon
        
        Uppermost Soil Layer
        
        Zone of Leaching
        
        Litter and Debris
      - B Horizon
        
        Zone of Deposition
        
        Materials from A Accumulate
        
        Rich in Nutrients, Clay, Humus
      - C Horizon
        
        Parent Rock and Rock Fragments
    - - Latitude
        
        Days Vary At Different Locations
      - Altitude
        
        Higher Has High Winds and Poor Soil
        
        High Not Fully Shielded by Ozone
    - - Fires, Avalanches, Floods, ETC.
      - Significant, Radical Change in Ecosystem
      - Little Impact on Abiotic Factors
      - Some can Benefit from These
  - - - Can Modify the Habitat
        
        Gives More Shade
    - - Mutualism
        
        Both Plants Are Beneficial to Each Other
      - Competition
        
        Plants Are Disadvantageous to Each Other
        
        Use Same Supplies
        
        Species Modification by Natural Selection
      - Competitive Exclusion
        
        Less Adapted Species is Excluded
      - Niche
        
        Specie's Adapted Conditions
      - Ecotypes
        
        Response to Particular Ecosystem Factors
        
        Same Species
        
        Transplant Experiments
        
        Test if Ecotypes are Existing
        
        Plants are Switching Sites
        
        Common Garden
        
        Plants from Both Sites Grow Together
    - - Animals
        
        Frugivores
        
        Fruit-Eating Animals
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        Commensal Relationships
        
        One Species Benefits
        
        Other is Left Unaffected
        
        Birds Nesting in Trees
        
        Predation
        
        One Species Benefits
        
        Other Is Harmed
        
        Herbivores
        
        Plant-Eating Animals
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Disease that Kills Plants
      - Fungi
      - Prokaryotes
- - - - Limiting Factor
        
        Determines the Health of the Plant
        
        All Aspects of Interactions with Environment
        
        Any Factor can be the Limiting
        
        Water, Sunlight, ETC
        
        Biotic Factors are Critical
        
        Soil Factors
    - - Random Distribution
        
        No Identifiable Pattern in Individual's Position
        
        No Predictive Value
      - Clumped Distribution
        
        Small or Large Spacing Between Plants
        
        Result of Many Factors
      - Uniform Distributions
        
        Individuals are Evenly Spaced
        
        Not Extremely Common
        
        Allochemicals
        
        Allopathy
  - - - Proportions of Young, Middle-Aged, and Old
    - - Length of Time From Birth to Having Offspring
    - - Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase
      - Number of Offspring Produced by Individual Who Can Reproduce
      - Measured Under Ideal Conditions
      - Carrying Capacity
        
        Number that can Live in an Ecosystem
  - - - Usually a Result of a Disturbance
      - r-Selected Species
        
        Annuals or Small Shrubby Perennials
        
        Become Disadvantaged
    - - k-Selected Species
        
        Douglas Firs and Bristle-Cone Pines
        
        Face Intense Competition
- - - - Lots of Different Variations
  - - - Herbivores
      - Preyed on by Carnivores
    - - Eat Herbivores
    - - Energy and Food for Herbivores
      - First Step of Food Webs
      - Autotrophs
    - - Fungi and Bacteria
      - Break Down Remains
    - - Movement of Energy Up the Levels
      - Carbon Flow