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Unit 4 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - this binding is non-covalent and reversible
      - important - cells need to stop responding to a signal after appropriate response has occured
      - receptors
        
        intracellular receptors: located inside & ligands are small or nonpolar, can diffuse across membrane
        
        membrane receptor: located on the cell surface & ligands are large or nonpolar, cannot diffuse across membrane
        
        Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
        
        closed channel proteins that open when a ligand binds
        
        ex) acetylcholine
        
        G Protein-Coupled Receptors
        
        plasma membrane receptor that works with a mobile membrane protein (G-protein)
  - - - multistep pathways
        
        initial receptor protein activates another protein, which activates another, and so one until the protein producing the response is activated
        
        phosphorylation and dephosphorylation - widespread cellular mechanism for cell regulation
        
        provide opportunities for coordination and regulation of the cellular response than simpler systems do
        
        first messenger - ligands
        
        second messenger - small, nonprotein, water-soluable molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion
        
        ex) cAMP and calcium ions
        
        signal amplification - often amplifies the signal (and thus the response)
        signal specificity - same signals can have different effect in cells with different proteins and pathways
  - - - poison target specific components of signal transduction pathways
        
        antrax: poison made by antrax bacteria bind and inhibits the function of adenylyl cyclase - blocks the cell communication
        
        diabetes: pancreas produce no insulin OR insulin receptors's signals are defective
  - - - signaling that requires direct contact between cells
      - cell junctions (plasmodesmata and gap junctions) / cell surface markers
    - - autocrine signaling
        
        affecting the same cells that release the chemical signals
        
        cancer cells
      - paracrine signaling
        
        chemical signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells
        
        morphogens in embryos
        
        central source of early development
        
        diffuse throughout the tissue - creates a [] gradient that provides a spatial reference for developing cells
        
        cells far from morphogen creates only one type of tissue - differentiation of cell structure
        
        quorum sensing
        
        allows bacteria to share information about cell density and adjust gene expression accordingly
    - - signals released by one cell type travel long distances to target of another cell type
      - insulin
        
        hormone secreted by the pancreas that targets fat, muscle, and liver cells
        
        pancreas secrets them into the blood as a response to high level of glucose in blood
        
        insulin binds to receptors on fat, muscle, liver cells to transport glucose to their cells from blood
        
        fat cells: use glucose to synthesize fatty acids and glycerol to build triglycerides (fat) - these stores energy in long term
        
        liver & muscle cells: use glucose to synthesize glycogen (a large polysaccharide) - these stores glucose for later use (short term)
      - human growth hormone
        
        produced and secreted by the pituitary gland and plays a huge role in the growth and development of humans
  - - - regulates physiological processes & returns the changing condition back to its target set point
      - thermoregulation
    - - amplify responses/processes in biological organisms
      - childbirth
      - ripening of a fruit
- - - - Prophase
      - Metaphase
      - Anaphase
      - Prometaphase
      - Telophase
      - daughter cells: nucleus is divided
    - - animal plants: cleavage furrow through contractile ring
        plant cells: cell plate forms -> cell wall
      - daughter cells: cytoplasm is divided
  - - - condensed DNA
    - - relaxed DNA
    - - synthesized/replicated DNA material after the S subphase in interphase
      - kinetochore
        
        the place where microtubules attach during prometaphase
      - centromere
        
        narrow region of the chromosome in the middle
    - - cells with 2n chromosomes
    - - all body cells except the reproductive cells
  - - - when cells are too crowded, they signal each other to stop dividing by inhibiting the CDK-cyclin complexes at the G1 checkpoint
    - - if a cell does not receive the go-ahead signal from the G1 checkpoint, it changes into a nondividing state