single-cell organisms made of prokaryotic cells.

both single-cell and multi-cell organisms made of eukaryotic cells

cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Ribosome

a region in the cell where DNA is located (not surrounded by a membrane)

Nucleus

Cytoplasm, cell membrane, and ribosome

consist entirely of a eukaryotic organism, which can be single-celled or multi-celled.

Include four main types of organisms: animals, plants, fungi, and protists

include a group of prokaryotes that are mainly characterized by their ability to thrive in extremeenvironments

include a diverse group of prokaryotes that are most notably recognized for their role in disease, health, important ecological relationships with plants and animals, and decomposing dead organic matter

Both plant and animals are made of eukaryotic cells.

Animal cells have centrioles and lysosomes, which are absent in most plant cells

Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and chloroplast

a transport vesicle, which carries the protein to its next destination.

fats, steroids, and new membrane phospholipids

where proteins are modified, stored, and then sent to other destinations in new transport vesicles

Golgi is made of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

(receiving end) vesicles from the ER fuse with the Golgi membrane, giving the Golgi its content

(receiving end) vesicles from the ER fuse with the Golgi membrane, giving the Golgi its content

a vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes that are used to digest (break down) macromolecules. Not usually found in plants

Lysosomes also play an important role in apoptosis, programmed cell death

Typically lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles to break down the contents into simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers

are large vesicles created by the ER and Golgi that perform a variety of functions

formed by phagocytosis, which is a process in which a cell engulfs materials from outside the cell

found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells

A common type of vacuole found in plant cells

store water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products

Minimized competing reaction

Increased surface area for reactios to occur

found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

The inner membrane contains foldings

If oxygen is available, sugar molecules (like glucose) are completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria.

Overall Reaction: sugar + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP

stroma

Later on, one of these cells may have engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into the chloroplast

Separates the internal cytoplasm from the external environment of the cell

Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell

Allows cells to communicate with one another and interact with their external environment

Float around like icebergs in a sea of phospholipids

a large surface area to adequately exchange materials with their surroundings, and a small volume for materials to quickly travel within the cell.

A particle moving along (or down) its concentration gradients moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

A particle moving against (or up)its concentration gradientis moving from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration

Molecules still move both ways, but at equal rates

Solute concentration is uniform –no concentration gradient

Diffusion allows gas exchange to occur between the lungs, blood, and cells

Solute and water concentrations are equal on both sides of cellular membrane

plasmolysis, causing the plant to wilt and die

Follows concentration gradient, moving from high concentration to low concentration. No energy is required

allow specific molecules or ions to quickly tunnel through the cell membrane.

specific solutes bind to the protein, changing the protein's shape, which results in the release of the solute on to the other side of the membrane

Formula for water potential: Ѱ = ѰP+ ѰS

measures how much pressure is exerted by the cell wall (due to turgidity) on the water inside a plan

T = Temperature in Kelvin (K = °C+ 273)

the movement of substances against their concentration gradient, which requires the inputof energy

use ATP to transport 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ intothe cell.

a measurement of the charge difference across a cell membrane and is measured in millivolts

a membrane protein that actively transports a solute against its concentration gradient by utilizing the concentration gradient of another solute

Vesicles are pieces of a phospholipid bilayer that encircle and transport large cargo

intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane to secrete its contents out of the cell

break down complex molecules into simpler compounds

Heat describes thermal energy in transferfrom one object to another

the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

Energy can be transferred and transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (heat) of universe

Releasing heat = Increasing entropyof the universe

requires a net input of energy and yield products that are rich in potential energy

Cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

the phosphorylation of reactants provides energy to drive the endergonic synthesis of products.

a chemical agent that speeds upa reaction without being altered in the process

Hydrolysis of sucrose by the enzyme sucraseis an example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

active site is the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds

proteins function at one site is affected by binding of a regulatory moleculeto a separate site

Cooperativity–one substrate triggers favorable conformational changes in other active sites => Increase catalytic activity

It prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed

The transfer of electrons from one molecule to another

As glucose is broken down during cellular respiration, hydrogen atoms and pairs of high energy electrons are taken away from glucose and given to electron carrier molecules, NAD+ and FAD

NAD++ H++ 2e-→ NADH
FAD + 2H++ 2e-→ FADH2

Oxidative Phosphorylation–ETC & Chemiosmosis

1)2 carbon dioxide are released
2)2 NADH are formed
3)Coenzyme-A (CoA) is added to the molecules forming 2 acetyl CoA

○4 CO2○6 NADH○2 FADH2○2 ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation

a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive the production of ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation can be decoupled from the electron transport chain if protons are allowed to diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix without going through ATP synthase.

consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis

The second step regenerates NAD+ and produces ethanol

Regenerated NAD+ is needed for the continuation of glycolysis

pyruvate is reduced by NADH, which regenerates NAD+

Forming lactateas an end product, with no release of CO2

Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, certain other unicellular eukaryotes, and some prokaryotes

They are the consumers in ecosystems and eat producers (autotrophs) as well as other heterotrophs

Electrons are taken from water (oxidation) and given to carbon dioxide (reduction)

Light consists of discrete energy particles called photons

Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll band carotenoids

The energy transferred to the chlorophyll amolecules is used to boost an electron to a high energy level

cell grows in size and begins doubling its number of organelles

cells replicate their DNA, producing two copies of each chromosome. The two copies are attached to one another as sister chromatids

cell continues to grow and prepares for cell division (M phase)

thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells

the substance within a chromosome consisting of DNA and protein. The DNA carries the cell's genetic instructions

Protein structure found at each sides of the centromere

Narrow region where sister chromatids are joined are called centromere

produced after a single cell undergoes cell division. During mitosis, one pair of daughter cells is created after one round of DNA replication.

contains two sets of chromosomes (one set inherited from each parent)

Cell division serves as a means of reproduction in unicellular organisms through binary fission. In multicellular organisms, cell division aids in the formation of gametes, which are cells that combine with others to form sexually produced offspring.

Usually repairs if there is wrong part, but if cannot it goes through apoptosis

checks to make sure that all the kinetochores are properly attached to microtubules of the mitotic spindle before beginning anaphase

CDKs are only activated when bound to cyclins,

When cells get too crowded, they signal each other to stop dividing by inhibiting the CDK-cyclin complexes at the G1checkpoint

Mutations in either of these genes can lead to uncontrolled cell division and tumor formation

code for proteins which promote the cell cycle in various ways

code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis in various ways

In single-celled organisms, signal transduction pathways influence how the cell responds to its environment

In multicellular organisms, signal transduction pathways coordinate the activities within individual cells that support the functionof the organism as a whole

a series of steps by which a signal on a cell’s surface is converted into a specific cellular response

produces a response in a cell

Only cells with the necessary receptors (target cells) can respond to a signal

Their ligands are smaller nonpolar and can diffuse across the membrane

large or polar ligands that cannot diffusethrough the membrane

closed channel proteins that change shape and open when a ligand binds

A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is a plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a mobile membrane protein, called a G-protein

Like falling dominoes, the initial receptor protein activates another protein, which activates another, and so on, until the protein producing the response is activated

transfer phosphatesfrom ATP to proteins, a process called phosphorylation

Alterations in gene expression

Regulation of enzyme activities

The poison produced by anthrax bacteria binds and inhibits the function of adenylyl cyclase, the protein that converts ATP to cAMP

autocrine and paracrine signaling

refers to the ability of an organism (or a cell) to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions

Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes