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Cell structure and Functions, Cellular Energetics, Cell Communication and…

- - - - Cytoplasm
      - Genetic material
        
        DNA
        
        RNA
      - Plasma membrane
        
        Phospholipid bilayer
        
        Semi-permeable membrane
        
        Small, hydrophobic
        
        Polar or charged substances
        
        Components of the plasma membrane
        
        Functions
        
        Separates the internal cytoplasm from the external environment of the cell
        
        Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell
        
        Allows cells to communicate with one another and interact with their external environment
        
        Structures
        
        Protein molecules
        
        Float around like icebergs in a sea of phospholipids
        
        Peripheral proteins
        
        Integral proteins
        
        amphipathic
        
        Channel Proteins
        
        Carrier Proteins
        
        Carrier Proteins
        
        Receptor Proteins
        
        Enzymatic Proteins
        
        Junction Proteins
        
        Cholesterol
        
        controls the fluidity of the membrane
        
        Carbohydrate Chains
        
        cell’s “fingerprint”
        
        Glycoproteins
        
        Glycolipids
        
        fluid-mosaic model
        
        selectively permeable
        
        cotransporter
        
        a membrane protein that actively transports a solute against its concentration gradient by utilizing the concentration gradient of another solute
        
        bulk transport
        
        ransported into and out of cells by vesicles
        
        Vesicles are pieces of a phospholipid bilayer that encircle and transport large cargo
        
        exocytosis
        
        intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane to secrete its contents out of the cell
        
        endocytosis
        
        cells take in substances by forming vesicles around the material
        
        Phagocytosis
        
        Large, solid material
        
        Pinocytosis
        
        liquid or very small particles
        
        Receptor-mediated endocytosis
        
        specific to a certain type of molecule
      - Ribosomes
        
        r RNA
    - - Prokaryotes
        
        single-cell organisms made of prokaryotic cells.
        
        cell membrane
        
        Cytoplasm
        
        Ribosome
        
        Nucleoid
        
        a region in the cell where DNA is located (not surrounded by a membrane)
        
        Cell wall
        
        Rigid structure outside the cell membrane
        
        Capsule
        
        Jelly like outer coating of many prokaryotes
        
        Flagella
        
        Locomotion organelles of some bacteria
      - Eukaryotes
        
        both single-cell and multi-cell organisms made of eukaryotic cells
        
        Organelle
        
        Nucleus
        
        Cytoplasm, cell membrane, and ribosome
        
        endosymbiotic theory
        
        an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using, non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which evolved into the mitochondria
        
        Later on, one of these cells may have engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into the chloroplast
    - - Animal cell
        
        Animal cells have centrioles and lysosomes, which are absent in most plant cells
      - Plant cell
        
        Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and chloroplast
      - Both plant and animals are made of eukaryotic cells.
    - - Nucleus
        
        Chromosomes
        
        Nuclear envelope
        
        Nuclear pores
        
        Nucleolus
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum(Smooth vs. Rough)
        
        Smooth
        
        lacks ribosomes
        
        contains many important metabolic enzymes
        
        synthesize lipids
        
        fats, steroids, and new membrane phospholipids
        
        Rough
        
        embedded with ribosomes
        
        Bound ribosomes
        
        Free ribosomes
        
        synthesize proteins
        
        build the polypeptide chain
        
        then modified and the finished protein is wrapped in a membrane
        
        a transport vesicle, which carries the protein to its next destination.
      - Golgi apparatus
        
        where proteins are modified, stored, and then sent to other destinations in new transport vesicles
        
        cisternae
        
        trans face
        
        (receiving end) vesicles from the ER fuse with the Golgi membrane, giving the Golgi its content
        
        Golgi is made of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
        
        cis face
        
        (receiving end) vesicles from the ER fuse with the Golgi membrane, giving the Golgi its content
      - Lysosome
        
        a vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes that are used to digest (break down) macromolecules. Not usually found in plants
        
        Lysosomes also play an important role in apoptosis, programmed cell death
        
        Typically lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles to break down the contents into simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers
      - Vacuole
        
        are large vesicles created by the ER and Golgi that perform a variety of functions
        
        Food vacuoles
        
        formed by phagocytosis, which is a process in which a cell engulfs materials from outside the cell
        
        Contractile vacuoles
        
        found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells
        
        large central vacuoles
        
        A common type of vacuole found in plant cells
        
        store water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products
      - Advantage(s) of having membrane bound organelles
        
        Minimized competing reaction
        
        Increased surface area for reactios to occur
      - Mitochondria
        
        found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
        
        double membrane
        
        intermembrane space
        
        mitochondrial matrix
        
        cristae
        
        The inner membrane contains foldings
      - Overview of aerobic cellular respiration
        
        If oxygen is available, sugar molecules (like glucose) are completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria.
        
        If oxygen is available, sugar molecules (like glucose) are completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria.
        
        Overall Reaction: sugar + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP
      - Chloroplast
        
        intermembrane space
        
        thylakoids
        
        granum
        
        thylakoid space
        
        stroma
    - - a large surface area to adequately exchange materials with their surroundings, and a small volume for materials to quickly travel within the cell.
    - - A particle moving along (or down) its concentration gradients moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
      - A particle moving against (or up)its concentration gradientis moving from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
      - Molarity
      - osmolarity
      - Passive transport
        
        the movement of substances across the cell membrane withoutthe input of energy
        
        Diffusion
        
        dynamic equilibrium
        
        Molecules still move both ways, but at equal rates
        
        Solute concentration is uniform –no concentration gradient
        
        Gas Exchange
        
        Diffusion allows gas exchange to occur between the lungs, blood, and cells
        
        Osmosis
        
        aquaporins
        
        Isotonic Solutions
        
        Solute and water concentrations are equal on both sides of cellular membrane
        
        Hypotonic Solutions
        
        lyse (rupture)
        
        turgor pressurein plants
        
        Hypertonic Solutions
        
        plasmolysis, causing the plant to wilt and die
        
        water potential
        
        Formula for water potential: Ѱ = ѰP+ ѰS
        
        pressure potential (ѰP)
        
        measures how much pressure is exerted by the cell wall (due to turgidity) on the water inside a plan
        
        solute potential (ѰS)
        
        Solute Potential Formula: ѰS = -iCRT
        
        1 more item...
        
        Facilitated transport
        
        Channels Proteins
        
        allow specific molecules or ions to quickly tunnel through the cell membrane.
        
        Follows concentration gradient, moving from high concentration to low concentration. No energy is required
        
        Carrier Proteins
        
        specific solutes bind to the protein, changing the protein's shape, which results in the release of the solute on to the other side of the membrane
      - Active transport
        
        the movement of substances against their concentration gradient, which requires the inputof energy
        
        sodium-potassium pump
        
        use ATP to transport 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ intothe cell.
        
        electrochemical gradient
        
        Membrane potential
        
        a measurement of the charge difference across a cell membrane and is measured in millivolts
- - - - Eukarya
        
        consist entirely of a eukaryotic organism, which can be single-celled or multi-celled.
        
        Include four main types of organisms: animals, plants, fungi, and protists
      - Arachae
        
        include a group of prokaryotes that are mainly characterized by their ability to thrive in extremeenvironments
      - Bacteria
        
        include a diverse group of prokaryotes that are most notably recognized for their role in disease, health, important ecological relationships with plants and animals, and decomposing dead organic matter
- - - - break down complex molecules into simpler compounds
    - - uild complex molecules from simpler ones
  - - - structure
    - - transferring a phosphate group to some other molecule
        
        the phosphorylation of reactants provides energy to drive the endergonic synthesis of products.
  - - - active site is the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds
      - induced fit
  - - - non-protein helpers of enzymes
        
        coenzyme
  - - - proteins function at one site is affected by binding of a regulatory moleculeto a separate site
      - Activator–stabilizes active site
      - Inhibitor–stabilizes inactiveform
      - Cooperativity–one substrate triggers favorable conformational changes in other active sites => Increase catalytic activity
    - - the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
        
        It prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed
- - - - thylakoids
        
        grana
        
        stroma
    - - CO2enters the leaf and O2exits
  - - - synthesize ATP and NADPH
        
        photosystem
        
        The energy transferred to the chlorophyll amolecules is used to boost an electron to a high energy level
    - - Happens in stroma
    - - Light consists of discrete energy particles called photons
      - Pigments are substances that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light
        
        Chlorophyll
        
        absorption spectrum
        
        Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll band carotenoids
- - - - As glucose is broken down during cellular respiration, hydrogen atoms and pairs of high energy electrons are taken away from glucose and given to electron carrier molecules, NAD+ and FAD
  - - - Glycolysis–breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
        
        Glycolysis consists of 10 reactions (each with its specific enzyme) that split one molecule of glucose (6-carbon) into two pyruvate molecules (3-carbon)
        
        does not require oxygen.
        
        energy investment phase
        
        two G3P
        
        energy harvesting phase
        
        oxidized into pyruvate
      - Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle–completes the breakdown of glucose
        
        Acetyl CoA
        
        1)2 carbon dioxide are released
        2)2 NADH are formed
        3)Coenzyme-A (CoA) is added to the molecules forming 2 acetyl CoA
      - Oxidative Phosphorylation–ETC & Chemiosmosis
- - - - Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor
  - - - ATP Synthase
- - - - Heat describes thermal energy in transferfrom one object to another
      - Thermodynamics
        
        The 1stlaw of thermodynamics
        
        Energy can be transferred and transformed but cannot be created or destroyed
        
        The 2ndlaw of thermodynamics
        
        Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (heat) of universe
        
        Entropy
        
        Releasing heat = Increasing entropyof the universe
        
        a measure of disorderor randomness
- - - - ○4 CO2○6 NADH○2 FADH2○2 ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation
- - - - pyruvate is converted to ethanol
        
        The first step releases CO2
        
        The second step regenerates NAD+ and produces ethanol
      - Regenerated NAD+ is needed for the continuation of glycolysis
    - - pyruvate is reduced by NADH, which regenerates NAD+
      - Forming lactateas an end product, with no release of CO2
- - - - signal transduction pathway
        
        a series of steps by which a signal on a cell’s surface is converted into a specific cellular response
  - - - ligand
        
        produces a response in a cell
      - target cells
        
        Only cells with the necessary receptors (target cells) can respond to a signal
      - Intracellular receptors
        
        Their ligands are smaller nonpolar and can diffuse across the membrane
      - Membrane receptors
        
        large or polar ligands that cannot diffusethrough the membrane
        
        Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
        
        closed channel proteins that change shape and open when a ligand binds
        
        G Protein-Coupled Receptors
        
        A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is a plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a mobile membrane protein, called a G-protein
    - - The binding of a ligand to a receptor will trigger the start of a signal transduction pathway within the cell
        
        Like falling dominoes, the initial receptor protein activates another protein, which activates another, and so on, until the protein producing the response is activated
      - Phosphorylation
        
        Protein kinases
        
        transfer phosphatesfrom ATP to proteins, a process called phosphorylation
      - dephosphorylation
        
        Protein phosphatases
      - phosphorylation cascade
    - - Opening of ion channels
      - Alterations in gene expression
      - Regulation of enzyme activities
    - - Conditions where signal transduction is blocked or defective can have deleterious effects
        
        The poison produced by anthrax bacteria binds and inhibits the function of adenylyl cyclase, the protein that converts ATP to cAMP
  - - - autocrine and paracrine signaling
      - Insulin
      - Human Growth Hormone
    - - endocrine signaling
      - Quorum Sensing
        
        Plaque
      - Morphogens
    - - juxtacrine signaling
  - - - maintain dynamic homeostasis for a particular condition (variable) by regulating physiological processes, and returning the changing condition back to its target set point
        
        Thermoregulation
    - - amplifyresponses and processes in biological organisms
        
        Childbirth
        
        Ripening of Fruit
- - - - cell grows in size and begins doubling its number of organelles
    - - cells replicate their DNA, producing two copies of each chromosome. The two copies are attached to one another as sister chromatids
    - - cell continues to grow and prepares for cell division (M phase)
  - - - Prophase
      - Prometaphase
      - Metaphase
      - Anaphase
      - Telophase
    - - Eukaryotes
        
        Animal
        
        cleavage furrow
        
        Plant
        
        cell plate
      - Prokaryotes
        
        binary fission
    - - produced after a single cell undergoes cell division. During mitosis, one pair of daughter cells is created after one round of DNA replication.
    - - contains two sets of chromosomes (one set inherited from each parent)
    - - Reproductive cells
  - - - the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the DNA replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere
        
        kinetochore
        
        Protein structure found at each sides of the centromere
        
        Centromere
        
        Narrow region where sister chromatids are joined are called centromere
    - - thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells
    - - the substance within a chromosome consisting of DNA and protein. The DNA carries the cell's genetic instructions
  - - - G1 checkpoint
        
        G0 phase
        
        nondividing state
      - G2checkpoint
        
        Checks if the DNA is properly copied during S phase
        
        Usually repairs if there is wrong part, but if cannot it goes through apoptosis
      - M checkpoint
        
        checks to make sure that all the kinetochores are properly attached to microtubules of the mitotic spindle before beginning anaphase
    - - cyclins
      - cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
        
        enzymes that phosphorylate (add phosphates to) other proteins
        
        cyclin-CDK complex
        
        CDKs are only activated when bound to cyclins,
    - - When cells get too crowded, they signal each other to stop dividing by inhibiting the CDK-cyclin complexes at the G1checkpoint
    - - Programmed cell death
  - - - Tumor suppressor genes
        
        code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis in various ways
      - Proto-oncogenes
        
        code for proteins which promote the cell cycle in various ways