Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Lit review - Coggle Diagram
Lit review
Usability
Analysing the impact of usability on software design
definition of usability
Usability engineering Nielsen 1993
most well-known descriptions concerning the learnability and memorability of a software system, its efficiency of use, its ability to avoid and manage user errors, and user satisfaction
benifits of improved usability
it improves productivity and raises team morale
reduces training and documentation costs
improves user productivity
increases e-commerce potential
easier to use = more sales
harder to use = left baskets out of annoyence
Finding problems in regard to usability in the earlier stages of development make it easier and less expensive to resolve.
Lower support cost as software is easier to use.
Usability and the bottom line
Benifits of usability for developers and the companies they work for.
Many companies see usability costs as extra even though user interfact, documentation for end users and maintanence are being developed
interfaces are linked to usability if they are engineered with it in mind or not
how bad usability can impact user experience
users will test the usaability of a system regardless as they will notice bugs or bad design choices through regular use
this could push the user to never use the system and tell their peers about their negative experience.
This study also found that 80 percent of software life-cycle costs occur during the maintenance phase; many maintenance costs are associated with user requirements and other problems that usability engineering can prevent
M.E. Wiklund, Usability In Practice: How Companies Develop User-Friendly Products, Boston,, 1994.
Designing the user interfact
Food waste patterns
Attitudes and behaviour towards convenience food and food waste in the United Kingdom
Global impact of food waste
Quote
In the UK 15 million tonnes are wasted in the food chain annually, of which 7 million tonnes are generated at a household level
Food waste that goes to landfill have a substantial greenhouse gas impact. For every tonne of food waste at landfill, "250 kg of CO2 equivalents" are released
The app will help reduce food waste in the home and bc of this, reducing greenhouse gases in the process.
Houses that are smaller have an increased food waste on average
"on a per household basis, total avoidable food waste increases directly with each additional household member, however larger households produce less waste than smaller households on a per capita basis"
Being able to use meal planning with smaller household, this can be financially and evironmentally postive
Allow user to enter number of household members to config system.
Food waste behaviours
Increasing
motive to be a ‘good’ provider, particularly amongst mothers, led to over-purchasing and consequently greater food wastage
Intro section
Decreasing
minimising food waste was driven by a desire to save money
Intro section
Identifying motivations and barriers to minimising household food waste
Food waste reduction motivations
Waste concerns
desire not to waste money
financial waste concerns were often seen as more significant than other concerns
Not getting the full value from food items
motivation to keep food waste to a minimum came from a concern of wasted utility, in so much as some of the household food purchasers felt that to throw food away, rather than eat it, meant that the food had not fulfilled its purpose
Doing the ‘right’ thing
Many of the household food purchasers talked about food waste being ‘wrong’
this stance was felt to be irrespective of their personal financial situations.
social history when waste was generally not tolerated, possible or affordable
adopted this viewpoint from friends and family
“Well I think I grew up with the ethos of you know my mother never used to waste anything, she couldn’t afford to. So I still have that…” (P8a)
more recent development resulting from their becoming increasingly aware of the negative environmental and social repercussions of food waste
Food management
mentioned by many of the household food purchasers as a factor that can facilitate the minimisation of household food waste
cooked meals in batches and stored them in the fridge or freezer ready for another day
This allowed them to cook the food while the ingredients were still fresh and to use their time wisely and cook when they were less busy therefore avoiding the possibility of food going to waste due to time constraints
their experience and knowledge of food management allowed them to plan in advance
Having the knowledge and awareness that food left over from previous meals could be re-created into a different dish was viewed as a helpful way to make sure food didn’t go to waste
Knowledge about food storage, food hygiene safety and an understanding of use-by/sell-by/best-before dates were also seen as an important tool to help avoid unnecessary food waste
Barriers to minimising household food waste
buying and/or cooking too much, not planning meals in advance, failing to compile or comply with a shopping list, failing to carry out a food inventory before shopping, impulse purchases, and throwing away food that has passed its sell-by-date
Intro, OC reference
The ‘good’ provider identity
high desire to be a ‘good’ parent, ‘good’ partner or ‘good’ host
The need to feel like a ‘good’ provider and minimise any feelings of guilt experienced if they failed to meet personal or cultural expectations -- frequently fulfilled by over-purchasing.
Parents (most notably mothers) described the importance of purchasing a variety of foods perceived to be healthy and nourishing, even if it meant food going to waste
provide an over-abundance of healthy foods to children extended beyond over-purchasing food to the over-preparation of food with parents often cooking more food than the children would eat
Increases plate waste meaning food items can not get reused in a new recipe
People who entertained guests sometimes described over-purchasing food as a way to avoid experiencing potential embarrassment of not having enough to go round.
Minimising inconvenience
desire to shop, cook and prepare food with convenience and time constraints in mind
Stocking up on food was viewed as a way of protecting yourself from the inconvenience of having to go shopping if something unplanned or unexpected happened
stockpiling perishable products as a way of minimising trips to the shops often resulted in food going to waste.
simply as a means of freeing up time for other responsibilities or personal pursuits and reducing future stress.
they did not want to poison themselves, as they viewed getting ill as another type of inconvenience
that could result in them having to take time off work
leaving them unable to carry out other commitments
they felt less prepared to take any kind of risk with eating food on or past its use-by dates or products that don’t look fresh
Lack of priority
real lack of engagement with issues surrounding food waste
lack of concern appeared to stem from their belief that food waste didn’t have negative environmental consequences
food waste wasn’t a big problem and that there were bigger problems to worry about
they were already behaving sustainably in other ways, they felt ok throwing food away.
Some household food purchasers felt that creating household waste was an accepted social norm.
Exemption from responsibility
responsibility for food waste lay with the food industry and supermarkets rather than the individual
Some of the household food purchasers felt that they wasted food because the quality of much food sold in supermarkets was poor
The food industry and supermarkets were also criticised for providing some items in pack sizes that were not suitable for people who lived alone or in couples. And, even when products were sold in smaller quantities or pack sizes, some household food purchasers still felt that their choice was limited.
Financial incentives, such as promotions were also cited as a further source of food waste. These in-store marketing techniques made some household food purchasers feel that they were put in a predicament, caught between buying in bulk (which represented ‘value-for-money’ but increased the likelihood that food would go to waste) or buying in smaller quantities (which incurred greater financial cost per quantity but reduced the chances of food waste occurring).
Supermarkets were also criticised by some of the household food purchasers for trying to palm-off their own waste onto the customers through the use of ‘2 for the price of 1’ offers or pre-packed items
High food waste consequences
it has a social impact as it contributes towards increases in global food prices, making food less accessible for the poorest as well as increasing the number of malnourished people both in developed and developing countries
Intro
economic impact: buying food, not eating it and then throwing it away currently costs the average UK family an estimated £680 a year
intro
food waste contributes to the demand for agricultural land, placing increased pressure on the world's already dwindling forest
Intro
Food waste further has implications for water wastage. For example, it has been estimated that in the UK 6.2 billion cubic metres of water per year is wasted producing food that is then thrown away – the equivalent of 243 litres of water per person per day
Intro
Evans, 2011, Evans, 2012
Identifying different food comsumers
Attitudes and behaviour towards convenience food and food waste in the United Kingdom
Information about study
928 aged 18-40
male n = 278; female n = 650
Consumers found
casual consumers n=246
being moderately stressed and pressed for time
occasionally planned meals in advance
Of all the consumer groups, CCs were the most positive towards convenience food reflected by their reported enjoyment of take-away food and ready meals of which they were the second highest consumers
most likely of all groups to snack instead of adhering to set meal times
The taste and appeal of food was least important to this group
least price-conscious
not particularly interested in food shopping
were indifferent to shopping in specialist shops, however, they expressed a preference for fresh products and bought organic food
average cooking skills
limited enjoyment of cooking; they were not averse to trying unfamiliar foods and were moderately willing to attempt new recipes
most likely to be influenced by advertising
were the most likely to own a microwave (95.1%), dishwasher (41.2%), electric knife (13.8%), an electric potato peeler (4.5%) and almost a third owned a juicer (32.9%)
discarding an average of 7.6% of food purchases
This high level of waste was mirrored in their reported plate waste, surplus cooked food or food from previous meals and both partially used and unopened products
reported moderate concern over discarding food (between ‘a little’ and ‘a fair amount’).
epicures n=135
Disinterested in convenience food
Preference for both fresh and organic produce
Price conscious with an eye for higher quality items
Enjoys trying new foods
Competent cook
has time to frequently cook from scratch
Does not use convinence appliances - microwave. But does use espresso machine
Least wastful ~2.5% of total food
very interested in food
reported high levels of concern over discarded food (between ‘a fair amount’ and ‘a great deal’).
traditional consumers n=255
somewhat pressed for time
marginally negative sentiments towards convenience food
they appreciated its time saving aspect, albeit recognising the associated cost
very price-conscious
willing to try new foods
very interested in food
competent cooks
enjoyed high levels of satisfaction from the regular preparation of meals and the associated social interaction
highly valued fresh produce; however they were only slightly interested in organic produce and were indifferent to shopping for food in specialist shops
low enjoyment of ready meals and take-away food
discarding 4.5% of their total purchased food
reported high levels of concern over discarded food (between ‘a fair amount’ and ‘a great deal’).
food detached consumers n=151
ambivalence to all aspects of meal planning, preparation, and to food in general
opposite of epicures
Compared to other groups the taste and appeal of food was relatively unimportant
they were unwilling to try new food
least likely to engage in the social aspects of mealtimes
tendency to dislike food shopping
expressed a modest preference for fresh products they did not seek out organic foods
they did not feel stressed and were not particularly pressed for time
did not snack and generally adhered to set meal times
lower than average cooking skills and did not enjoy cooking
negative attitude towards convenience food, although they moderately acknowledged its time saving benefit
wasted 3.3% of total purchased food
reported moderate concern about discarding food.
kitchen evaders n=141
largest proportion of single person households (19.9%).
most likely to rate convenience food highly
expressed enjoyment of both ready meals and take-away food and rated the value for money of convenience food as the highest of all the consumer groups
most pressed for time and appreciated the time saving benefits of convenience food the most
disliked food shopping the most; they were the least interested in product information and were least likely to plan ahead
expressed only a mild preference for fresh products and were the least likely to buy organic foods
lowest cookery skills and derived the least enjoyment from meal preparation
reflected in the frequency with which KEs scratch cooked which was the lowest of all groups
moderately likely to snack in place of a meal
reported the highest combined consumption of ready meals and take-away food
most likely to avoid cooking when alone
possessed the least amount of kitchen equipment, with the exception of the microwave for which they reported the second highest ownership
discarding an average of 5.2% of their total food purchases
moderate concern in relation to discarded food (between ‘a little’ and ‘a fair amount’).
Recipe recommendation